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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Hinduism}}
'''''Ishvara''''' ({{
In [[Shaivism]], ''Ishvara'' is
▲''Ishvara'' is primarily an epithet of [[Shiva]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=171|url-status=live|website=IITS Koeln|page=171|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309015920/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=171}}</ref><ref name=":1">James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, page 306</ref> In [[Shaivism]], ''Ishvara'' is an epithet of [[Shiva]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/880450730|title=Lord Śiva's Song: the Īśvara Gītā|others=Andrew J. Nicholson, Laurie Searl|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4384-5102-2|oclc=880450730}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=235, 379–380}}</ref> For many [[Vaishnavites|Vaishnavas]], it is synonymous with [[Vishnu]], like in his epithet of [[Venkateswara Temple|Venkateswara]].<ref name="olilea" /> In traditional [[Bhakti]] movements, ''Ishvara'' is one or more deities of an individual's preference ([[Iṣṭa-devatā (Hinduism)|Iṣṭa-devatā]]) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such as [[Arya Samaj]] and [[Brahmoism]], ''Ishvara'' takes the form of a monotheistic God.<ref name=rkpr>RK Pruthi (2004), Arya Samaj and Indian Civilization, {{ISBN|978-8171417803}}, pages 5–6, 48–49</ref> In the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".<ref name=lpfl/> In [[Advaita Vedanta]], Ishvara is the [[Saguna brahman|manifested form of Brahman]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahm |first=Archie J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Su-SQNfNqgC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA140&dq=ishvara+saguna+brahman&hl=en |title=The World's Living Religions |date=1992 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87573-000-4 |language=en}}</ref>
==Etymology==
The root of the word Ishvara comes from ''īś-'' (ईश्, Ish) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".<ref>[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820005}}, page 47</ref> The second part of the word ''Ishvara'' is ''vara'' which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".<ref>Arthur Anthony Macdonell (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820005}}, page 270</ref> The composite word, ''Ishvara'' literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover".
As a concept, ''Ishvara'' in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self,
The word ''Īśvara'' does not appear in [[Rigveda]].<ref name=madhav/> However, the verb ''īś-'' does appear in
The word ''Ishvara'' appears in numerous ancient [[Dharmaśāstra#Principal Root Texts|Dharmasutra]]s. However, [[Patrick Olivelle]] states that there ''Ishvara'' does not mean God, but means [[Veda]]s.<ref name=patrick/> Deshpande states that ''Ishvara'' in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important as ''Ishvara'' (the king) on matters of public importance".<ref name=patrick>Patrick Olivelle (2006), Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195305326}}, page 176</ref>
The term is used as part of the compounds [[Maheshvara]] ("The Great Lord") and [[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshvara]] ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of
In [[Advaita Vedanta]] school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.<ref name=lance>Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791427064}}, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref><ref name=jkoller/>
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Desmarais states that Isvara is a metaphysical concept in Yogasutras.<ref name=mmd>Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds : Mind, Consciousness And Identity in Patanjali's Yoga-Sutra, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-8120833364}}, page 131</ref> It does not mention deity anywhere, nor does it mention any devotional practices (''[[Bhakti]]''), nor does it give ''Ishvara'' characteristics typically associated with a deity.<ref name=mmd/> In Yoga school of Hinduism, states Whicher, Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism.<ref name=ianw/> Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedanta philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the term ''Ishvara'' as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".<ref name=ianw>Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana, State University of New York press, {{ISBN|978-0791438152}}, pages 82–86</ref><ref name="knut"/> Malinar states that in Samkhya-Yoga schools of Hinduism, ''Isvara'' is neither a creator-God, nor a savior-God.<ref>A Malinar (2014), Current Approaches: Articles on Key Themes, in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1472511515}}, page 79</ref>
Zimmer in his 1951 Indian philosophies book noted that the Bhakti sub-schools refer to Isvara as a Divine Lord, or the deity of specific Bhakti sub-school.<ref>Zimmer (1951), Philosophies of India, Reprinted by Routledge in 2008, {{ISBN|978-0415462327}}, pages 242–243, 309–311</ref> Modern sectarian movements have emphasized Ishvara as Supreme Lord; for example, [[ISKCON|Hare Krishna]] movement considers Krishna as the Lord
Radhakrishnan and Moore state that these variations in ''Ishvara'' concept is consistent with Hinduism's notion of "personal God" where the "ideals or manifestation of individual's highest Self values that are esteemed".<ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 37–39, 401–403, 498–503</ref> Riepe, and others,<ref name=mirceaelaide73>[[Mircea Eliade]] (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691142036}}, pages 73–76</ref> state that schools of Hinduism leave the individual with freedom and choice of conceptualizing Ishvara in any meaningful manner he or she wishes, either in the form of "deity of one's choice" or "formless [[Brahman]] (Absolute Reality, Universal Principle, true special Self)".<ref name=riepe>Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-8120812932}}, pages 177–184, 208–215</ref><ref>RC Zaehner (1975), Our savage god: The perverse use of eastern thought, {{ISBN|978-0836206111}}, pages 69–72</ref><ref>R.C. Zaehner (1966), Hinduism, Oxford University Press, 1980 edition: pages 126–129, Reprinted in 1983 as {{ISBN|978-0198880127}}</ref>
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===In Samkhya===
[[Samkhya]] is called one of the major atheistic schools of Hindu philososphy by some scholars.<ref name=lpfl>Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 38–39</ref><ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, page 39</ref><ref>Richard Garbe (2013), Die Samkhya-Philosophie, Indische Philosophie Volume 11, {{ISBN|978-1484030615}}, pages 25–27 (in German)</ref> Others, such as [[:no:Knut A. Jacobsen|Jacobsen]], believe Samkhya is more accurately described as non-theistic.<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 15–16</ref> Yet others argue that Samkhya has been theistic from its very beginnings until medieval times.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nicholson|first=Andrew|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2010|location=New York|pages=69–78}}</ref> Isvara is
===In Yoga===
The [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yogasutras]] of Patanjali, the foundational text of the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, uses the term ''Ishvara'' in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is ''Isvara''? These commentaries range from defining ''Isvara'' from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".<ref name=lpfl/><ref>Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126–129</ref> Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of ''Isvara'' in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".<ref>Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791438152}}, page 86</ref>
Patanjali defines ''Isvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, ''[[puruṣa]]-viśeṣa'')",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Āgāśe |first1=K. S. |title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi |date=1904 |publisher=Ānandāśrama |location=Puṇe |page=25 |url=https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n33/mode/2up}}</ref>
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Patanjali's concept of Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism.<ref name=ianw/><ref name=knut>[[:no:Knut A. Jacobsen|Knut Jacobsen]] (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, page 77</ref>
===In Vaisesika
The [[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]] school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BC, neither required nor relied on ''Ishvara'' for its [[atomism|atomistic]] naturalism philosophy. To it, substances and ''paramāṇu'' (atoms) were eternal; they moved and interacted based on impersonal, eternal ''adrsta'' (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature.<ref name=klausk/><ref>A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, {{ISBN|978-0865902787}}, pages 149–151</ref> The concept of ''Ishvara'', among others, entered into Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium AD.<ref name=klausk/><ref>R Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674001879}}, page 836</ref> This evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. These later-age ancient Vaiśeṣika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added Ishvara as another eternal who is also omniscient and omnipresent (not omnipotent). Ishvara did not create the world, according to this school of Hindu scholars, but He only created invisible laws that operate the world and then He becomes passive and lets those hidden universal laws do their thing.<ref name=klausk/> Thus, Vaisheshika's Ishvara mirrors [[Deus otiosus]] of [[Deism]]. Vaisheshika school's ''Ishvara'', states [[Klaus Klostermaier]], can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but He "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".<ref name=klausk>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, {{ISBN|978-0791470824}}, page 337</ref>
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Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the [[monism|monist]] views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, from delusions, from root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, true to truth, liberated like Ishvara.<ref>William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-8120812512}}, page 23-25</ref><ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 547–551</ref>
When the universe is not manifest, Shankara conceives of Ishvara as abiding in a state of dreamless sleep. The universe's manifestation occurs when Ishvara is in a dreaming state, wherein Ishvara is visualizing the universe owing to its memory of previous creations. Just as the state of dreaming is dependent on memory (not separate from the mind), the universe does not have an existence separate from Ishvara. Ishvara's knowledge is thus a necessary condition for the existence of the universe.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dalal |first=Neil |title=Śaṅkara |date=2021 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/shankara/ |
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In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: ''jiva'') are considered parts of God, and thus one with Him in quality, and yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Spiritual Dialectics |last=Mukundananda |first=Swami |publisher=Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog |year=2013 |pages=96 |quote=Hence, he called his philosophy Achintya Bhedabhed vad, or Inconceivable Simultaneous Oneness and Difference.}}</ref>
Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva completed the progression to devotional [[theism]]. [[Rāmānuja]] had agreed with [[Śaṅkara|{{IAST|Śaṅkara}}]] that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the ''[[
===In Carvaka===
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