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{{short description|Practice of dressing like a different gender}}
[[File:This-Is-The-Army gals (Broadway).jpg|thumb|right|[[Irving Berlin]]'s "This Is the Army, Mr. Jones", performed by cross-dressed U.S. Army soldiers (1942)<ref name="Winkler-2016">{{cite web |last=Winkler |first=Sheldon |date=5 December 2016 |title='This is the Army': Irving Berlin's War |url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/this-is-the-army-irving-berlins-war/ |website=Warfare History Network |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718121040/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/this-is-the-army-irving-berlins-war/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
{{Crossdressing}}
{{Transgender sidebar}}
'''Cross-dressing''' is the act of wearing clothes traditionally or stereotypically associated with a different [[gender]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/transgender |title=What does transgender mean? |publisher=American Psychological Association |date=2014 |access-date=27 January 2023 |archive-date=8 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208195456/https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/transgender |url-status=live }}</ref> From as early as pre-modern history, cross-dressing has been practiced in order to disguise, comfort, entertain, and express oneself.<ref>{{Cite book |date=2004 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.2752/9781847888952/unzipgend0005|isbn=978-1-84788-895-2 |chapter=Clothing Sex, Sexing Clothes: Transvestism, Material Culture and the Sex and Gender Debate |title=Unzipping Gender }}</ref>
[[Socialization]] establishes social norms among the people of a particular society. With regard to the [[social aspects of clothing]], such standards may reflect guidelines relating to the style, color, or type of clothing that individuals are expected to wear. Such expectations may be delineated according to [[gender roles]]. Cross-dressing involves dressing contrary to the prevailing standards (or in some cases, laws) for a person of their gender in their own society.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Bicchieri |first1=Cristina |title=Social Norms |date=2018 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/social-norms/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Winter 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=2022-12-01 |last2=Muldoon |first2=Ryan |last3=Sontuoso |first3=Alessandro |archive-date=2020-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322042537/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/social-norms/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
The term "cross-dressing" refers to an action or a behavior, without attributing or implying any specific causes or motives for that behavior. Cross-dressing is not synonymous with being [[transgender]].
==Terminology==
The phenomenon of cross-dressing is seen throughout recorded history, being referred to as far back as the [[Hebrew Bible]].<ref name="aggrawal_2009_16_3">{{cite journal |author=Aggrawal, Anil. |title=References to the paraphilias and sexual crimes in the Bible |journal=J Forensic Leg Med |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=109–14 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19239958 |doi=10.1016/j.jflm.2008.07.006 }}</ref> The terms used to describe it have changed throughout history; the [[Anglo-Saxon]]-rooted term "cross-dresser" is viewed more favorably than the [[Latin]]-origin term "[[transvestite]]" in some circles, where it has come to be seen as outdated and derogatory.<ref name="Vaccaro">{{cite book |author=Annemarie Vaccaro |author2=Gerri August |author3=Megan S. Kennedy|title=Safe Spaces: Making Schools and Communities Welcoming to LGBT Youth|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=978-0-313-39368-6|year=2011|page=142|access-date=October 21, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkxjSnI2e0UC&pg=PA142|quote=Cross-dresser/cross-dressing. (1) The most neutral word to describe a person who dresses, at least partially or part of the time, and for any number of reasons, in clothing associated with another gender within a particular society. Carries no implications of 'usual' gender appearance, or sexual orientation. Has replaced transvestite, which is outdated, problematic, and generally offensive since it was historically used to diagnose medical/mental health disorders.}}</ref><ref name="Capuzza">{{cite book |author=Jamie C. Capuzza |author2=Leland G. Spencer|title=Transgender Communication Studies: Histories, Trends, and Trajectories|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|isbn=978-1-4985-0006-7|year=2015|page=174|access-date=October 21, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A1emBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|quote=Eventually, the transvestite label fell out of favor because it was deemed to be derogatory; cross-dresser has emerged as a more suitable replacement ([[GLAAD]], 2014b).}}</ref><ref name="Zastrow">{{cite book |author=Charles Zastrow|title=Empowerment Series: Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering People|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn=978-1-305-38833-8|year=2016|page=239|access-date=October 21, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DB5TCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA239|quote=the term transvestite is often considered an offensive term.}}</ref>
==={{lang|fr|En femme}} and {{lang|fr|en homme}}===
The term '''
Between 1987 and 1991, JoAnn Roberts and CDS published a magazine called "En Femme" that was "for the transvestite, transsexual, crossdresser, and [[Drag queen|female impersonator]]
===En homme===▼
▲The term '''''en homme''''' {{IPA-fr|ɑ̃nɔm|}} is an [[anglicized]] adaptation of a French phrase. It is used in the [[transgender]] and [[crossdress]]ing community to describe the act of wearing masculine clothing or expressing a stereotypically masculine personality.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=Joan Wallach |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1smjv00 |title=Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man |date=1996 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-63930-0 |pages=140–141 |language=en |chapter=The Radical Individualism of Madeleine Pelletier |jstor=j.ctv1smjv00.8 |quote=To re-dress the female body 'en homme' was to signal its autonomy and its individuality . . . . She herself wore closely cropped hair, a starched collar, tie, and suit coat long before these had become fashionable attire for 'modern' women after World War 1. . . . She understood her transvestism as a transgression of prevailing norms, a way of establishing her individuality in the face of a disapproving crowd |chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1smjv00.8}}</ref> The term is derived from the modern colloquial [[French language|French]] phrase ''en tant qu'homme'' meaning "as a man" and the anglicized adaptation ''en homme'' literally translates as "in man". Most crossdressers also use a ''homme'' ([[male]]) name whilst ''en homme''.
==History==
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===Non-Western history===
[[File:Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari) (CBL J 1038.1).jpg|thumb|[[Lady Murasaki|Lady Murasaki's]] classical novel ''[[The Tale of Genji]]''
Cross-dressing has been practiced throughout much of recorded history, in many societies, and for many reasons. Examples exist in [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]], and [[Hindu mythology]]. Cross-dressing can be found in theater and religion, such as [[kabuki]], [[Noh]], and [[Korean shamanism]], as well as in folklore, literature, and music. For instance, in examining kabuki culture during Japan's edo period, cross-dressing was not only used for theater purposes, but also because current societal trends: cross-dressing and the switching of genders was a familiar concept to the Japanese at the time which allowed them to interchange characters's genders easily and incorporate [[Geisha|geisha fashion]] into men's wear.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cross-dressers in Ukiyo-e {{!}} 太田記念美術館 Ota Memorial Museum of Art |url=http://www.ukiyoe-ota-muse.jp/exhibition-eng/crossdressors |access-date=2022-12-01 |language=ja |archive-date=2022-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201011917/http://www.ukiyoe-ota-muse.jp/exhibition-eng/crossdressors |url-status=live }}</ref> This was especially common in the story-telling of ancient stories such as the character Benten from [[Benten Kozō]]. He was a thief in the play cross-dressing as a woman. Cross-dressing was also exhibited in Japanese Noh for similar reasons. Societal standards at the time broke boundaries between gender. For example, ancient Japanese portraits of aristocrats have no clear differentiation in characteristics between male and female beauty. Thus, in Noh performance, the cross-dressing of actors was common; especially given the ease of disguising biological sex with the use of masks and heavy robes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Intersections: Children in Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Century Lowland Philippine Societies |url=http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue16/saeki.htm |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=intersections.anu.edu.au |archive-date=2022-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201011923/http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue16/saeki.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In a non-entertainment context, cross-dressing is also exhibited in Korean shamanism for religious purposes. Specifically, this is displayed in chaesu-gut, a shamanistic rite gut in which a shaman offers a sacrifice to the spirits to intermediate in the fortunes of the intended humans for the gut. Here, cross-dressing serves many purposes. Firstly, the shaman (typically a woman) would cross-dress as both male and female spirits can occupy her. This allows her to represent the opposite sex and become a cross-sex icon in 75% of the time of the ritual. This also allows her to become a sexually liminal being. It is clear that in entertainment, literature, art, and religion, different civilizations have utilized cross-dressing for many different purposes.<ref>{{Citation |last=Panoussi |first=Vassiliki |title=cross-dressing |date=2023-04-19 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8634 |access-date=2024-03-24 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8634 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |archive-date=2024-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423125531/https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8634 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Duggan |first1=Anne E. |title=Folktales and fairy tales: traditions and texts from around the world |last2=Haase |first2=Donald |last3=Callow |first3=Helen J. |date=2016 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1-61069-253-3 |edition=2nd |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=241–3 |language=en |quote=Prohibited in many societies, cross-dressing, or wearing the clothing of the other sex, is nonetheless practiced or narrated around the world in ritual, dance, balladry, theater, folktales, fairy tales, short stories, and novels. Transvestism, as it is also known, is an integral part of many folk ritual practices.}}</ref>
===Western history===
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The [[Rebecca Riots]] took place between 1839 and 1843 in [[West Wales|West]] and [[Mid Wales]].<ref name="Welsh Academy">{{cite book |last=Davies |first=John |author2=Jenkins, Nigel |title=The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales |year=2008 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff|page=730 |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6}}</ref> They were a series of [[protest]]s undertaken by local farmers and agricultural workers in response to unfair taxation. The rioters, often men dressed as women, took their actions against [[toll-gate]]s, as they were tangible representations of high taxes and tolls. The riots ceased prior to 1844 due to several factors, including increased troop levels, a desire by the protestors to avoid violence and the appearance of criminal groups using the guise of the biblical character [[Rebecca]] for their own purposes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gross|first=David M.|year=2014|title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns|publisher=Picket Line Press|isbn=978-1-4905-7274-1|pages=68–69}}</ref> In 1844 an Act of Parliament to consolidate and amend the laws relating to [[turnpike trust]]s in [[Wales]] was passed.
A variety of historical figures are known to have cross-dressed to varying degrees. Many women found they had to disguise themselves as men in order to participate in the wider world. For example, it is postulated that [[Margaret King]] cross-dressed in the early 19th century to attend medical school, as universities at that time accepted only male students. A century later, [[Vita Sackville-West]] dressed as a young soldier in order to "walk out" with her girlfriend [[Violet Keppel]], to avoid the street harassment that two women would have faced. The prohibition on women wearing male garb, once strictly applied, still has echoes today in some Western societies which require girls and women to wear skirts, for example as part of [[school uniform]] or office [[dress code]]s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Doig |first1=Liz |title=Who's wearing the trousers? |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/505095.stm |access-date=12 December 2018 |work=
==Legal issues==
=== North America ===
For instance, from 1840 forward, United States saw state and city laws forbidding people from appearing in public while dressed in clothes not commonly associated with their assigned sex. The goal of this wave of policies was to create a tool that would enforce a normative gender narrative, targeting multiple gender identities across the gender spectrum. With the progression of time, styles, and societal trends, it became even more difficult to draw the line between what was cross-dressing or not. Only recently have these laws changed. As recently as 2011, it was still possible for a man to get arrested for "impersonating a woman" — a vestige of the 19th century laws.<ref name="pbs.org">{{Cite web |date=2015-05-31 |title=Arresting dress: A timeline of anti-cross-dressing laws in the United States |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/arresting-dress-timeline-anti-cross-dressing-laws-u-s |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us |archive-date=2024-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718120857/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/arresting-dress-timeline-anti-cross-dressing-laws-u-s |url-status=live }}</ref> Even with this, legal issues surrounding cross-dressing perpetuated all throughout the mid 20th century. During this time period, police would often reference laws that did not exist or laws that have been repealed in order to target the LGBTQ+ community.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ryan |first=Hugh |title=How Dressing in Drag Was Labeled a Crime in the 20th Century |url=https://www.history.com/news/stonewall-riots-lgbtq-drag-three-article-rule |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=HISTORY |date=28 June 2019 |language=en}}</ref>▼
▲For instance, from 1840 forward, United States saw state and city laws forbidding people from appearing in public while dressed in clothes not commonly associated with their assigned sex. The goal of this wave of policies was to create a tool that would enforce a normative gender narrative, targeting multiple gender identities across the gender spectrum. With the progression of time, styles, and societal trends, it became even more difficult to draw the line between what was cross-dressing or not. Only recently have these laws changed. As recently as 2011, it was still possible for a man to get arrested for "impersonating a woman" — a vestige of the 19th century laws.<ref name="pbs.org">{{Cite web |date=2015-05-31 |title=Arresting dress: A timeline of anti-cross-dressing laws in the United States |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/arresting-dress-timeline-anti-cross-dressing-laws-u-s |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us}}</ref> Even with this, legal issues surrounding cross-dressing perpetuated all throughout the mid 20th century. During this time period, police would often reference laws that did not exist or laws that have been repealed in order to target the LGBTQ+ community.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ryan |first=Hugh |title=How Dressing in Drag Was Labeled a Crime in the 20th Century |url=https://www.history.com/news/stonewall-riots-lgbtq-drag-three-article-rule |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=HISTORY |date=28 June 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
[[Nepal]] decriminalized cross-dressing in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonblade.com/2024/04/22/out-in-the-world-lgbtq-news-from-europe-and-asia-21/,%20https://www.washingtonblade.com/2024/04/22/out-in-the-world-lgbtq-news-from-europe-and-asia-21/|title=Out in the World: LGBTQ news from Europe and Asia|first=Rob|last=Salerno|date=April 22, 2024|website=www.washingtonblade.com|access-date=April 24, 2024|archive-date=July 18, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718121101/https://www.washingtonblade.com/2024/04/22/out-in-the-world-lgbtq-news-from-europe-and-asia-21/|url-status=live}}</ref> Only in 2014 did an appeal court in Malaysia finally overturn a state law prohibiting Muslim men from cross-dressing as women.<ref name="pbs.org"/>▼
=== Oceania ===
▲This extends beyond the United States: There still remains 13 UN member States that explicitly criminalize transgender individuals, and there exist even more countries that use a great deal of diverse laws to target them. The third edition of the Trans Legal Mapping Report, done by the [[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association|International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex Association]] found that an especially common method to target these individuals is through cross-dressing regulations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srikanth |first=Anagha |date=2020-09-30 |title=It is still illegal to be transgender in these countries |url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/equality/519060-it-is-still-illegal-to-be-transgender-in-these-countries/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref> For instance, only in 2014 did an appeal court in Malaysia finally overturn a state law prohibiting Muslim men from cross-dressing as women.<ref name="pbs.org"/>
In the Australian state of Tasmania, cross-dressing in public was made a criminal offence in 1935, and this law was only repealed in 2000.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Delaney |first1=Martine |title=How Tasmania is going from worst to best on transgender human rights |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/apr/08/how-tasmania-is-going-from-worst-to-best-on-transgender-human-rights |work=The Guardian |date=8 April 2019 |access-date=15 June 2023 |archive-date=4 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504185844/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/apr/08/how-tasmania-is-going-from-worst-to-best-on-transgender-human-rights |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Evening Cross-Dressing Legal in Tasmania |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=82131&page=1 |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref>▼
▲In the Australian state of Tasmania, cross-dressing in public was made a criminal offence in 1935, and this law was only repealed in 2000.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Delaney |first1=Martine |title=How Tasmania is going from worst to best on transgender human rights |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/apr/08/how-tasmania-is-going-from-worst-to-best-on-transgender-human-rights |work=The Guardian |date=8 April 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Evening Cross-Dressing Legal in Tasmania |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=82131&page=1 |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref>
▲[[Nepal]] decriminalized cross-dressing in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonblade.com/2024/04/22/out-in-the-world-lgbtq-news-from-europe-and-asia-21/,%20https://www.washingtonblade.com/2024/04/22/out-in-the-world-lgbtq-news-from-europe-and-asia-21/|title=Out in the World: LGBTQ news from Europe and Asia|first=Rob|last=Salerno|date=April 22, 2024|website=www.washingtonblade.com}}</ref>
==Varieties==
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</ref>
In an effort to clamp down on [[kabuki]]'s popularity, women's kabuki, known as {{transliteration|ja|onna-kabuki}}, was banned in 1629 in Japan for being too erotic.<ref name="An Outline History of the Japanese Drama">{{cite book | url=http://www.theatrehistory.com/asian/kabuki001.html | title=An Outline History of the Japanese Drama | publisher=George Allen & Unwin LTD | author=Lombard, Frank Alanson | year=1928 | location=London | pages=287–295 | isbn=978-1-138-91983-9 | access-date=2022-06-15 | archive-date=2022-03-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320073931/http://theatrehistory.com/asian/kabuki001.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Following this ban, young boys began performing in {{transliteration|ja|[[wakashū]]-kabuki}}, which was also soon banned.<ref name="An Outline History of the Japanese Drama" /> Thus adult men play female roles in kabuki.
[[Dan role|Dan]] is the general name for female roles in [[Chinese opera]], often referring to leading roles. They may be played by male or female actors. In the early years of [[Peking opera]], all {{transliteration|zh|dan}} roles were played by men, but this practice is no longer common in any Chinese opera genre.
Women have often been excluded from [[Noh#Women in Noh|Noh]], and men often play female characters in it.<ref name="Nohauto">{{Cite web|url=https://thetheatretimes.com/living-breathing-history-noh/|title=Living And Breathing History, Through Noh|date=March 24, 2018|access-date=June 15, 2022|archive-date=June 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618180243/https://thetheatretimes.com/living-breathing-history-noh|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Drag (clothing)|Drag]] is a special form of [[performance art]] based on the act of cross-dressing. A [[drag queen]] is usually a [[Sex assignment|male-assigned]] person who performs as an exaggeratedly feminine character, in heightened costuming sometimes consisting of a showy dress, high-heeled shoes, obvious make-up, and [[Wig (hair)|wig]]. A drag queen may imitate famous female film or pop-music stars. A [[faux queen]] is a female-assigned person employing the same techniques. A [[drag king]] is a counterpart of the drag queen – a female-assigned person who adopts a masculine persona in performance or imitates a male film or pop-music star. Some female-assigned people undergoing [[Gender-affirming surgery]] also self-identify as 'drag kings'.[[File:Lady Bunny and Sherry Vine by David Shankbone.JPG|thumb|[[Drag queen]]s [[Lady Bunny]] (left) and [[Sherry Vine]] (right) in 2008. Drag is a form of cross-dressing as [[performance art]].]]The modern activity of [[battle reenactment]]s has raised the question of women passing as male soldiers. In 1989, Lauren Burgess dressed as a male soldier in a [[U.S. National Park Service]] reenactment of the [[Battle of Antietam]], and was ejected after she was discovered to be a woman. Burgess sued the Park Service for [[sexual discrimination]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robinson |first1=Lynda |date=September 30, 1991 |title=Battle re-enactor finds herself at war with U.S. Park Service |url=
"Wigging" refers to the practice of male [[stunt double]]s taking the place of an actress, parallel to "[[blackface|paint downs]]", where white stunt doubles are made up to resemble black actors.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robb |first1=David |title=Stuntwomen Panel: Evangeline Lilly Says She Was Intentionally Injured While Filming 'Lost' |url=https://deadline.com/2018/05/stuntwomen-panel-evangeline-lilly-deven-macnair-1202393558/ |access-date=12 December 2018 |work=Deadline |date=17 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref> Female stunt doubles have begun to protest this norm of "historical sexism", saying that it restricts their already limited job possibilities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carroll |first1=Rory |title='It's historical sexism' – the fight to end stuntmen doubling for women |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/feb/10/wigging-stuntmen-doubling-for-women-lawsuit |access-date=12 December 2018 |work=The Guardian |date=10 February 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718121100/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/feb/10/wigging-stuntmen-doubling-for-women-lawsuit |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Lavelle |first1=Daniel |title=Why stuntwomen are angry about 'wigging' – and are changing the industry from within |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/nov/27/why-stuntwomen-are-angry-about-wigging-and-are-changing-the-industry-from-within |access-date=12 December 2018 |work=The Guardian |date=27 November 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718121101/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/nov/27/why-stuntwomen-are-angry-about-wigging-and-are-changing-the-industry-from-within |url-status=live }}</ref>
====British pantomime, television and comedy====
[[Image:1896 DanLeno-WidowTwankey.jpg|thumb|upright|Comedian [[Dan Leno]] as [[Widow Twankey]] in the 1896 [[pantomime]] ''Aladdin'' at [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]], London]]
Cross-dressing is a traditional popular trope in [[British comedy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The Brits and Cross-Dressing: A History |url=http://www.bbcamerica.com/anglophenia/2014/11/brits-cross-dressing-history |access-date=26 April 2019 |agency=BBC America |archive-date=26 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426175832/http://www.bbcamerica.com/anglophenia/2014/11/brits-cross-dressing-history |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[pantomime dame]] in British [[pantomime]] dates from the 19th century, which is part of the theatrical tradition of female characters portrayed by male actors in drag. [[Widow Twankey]] (Aladdin's mother) is a popular pantomime dame: in 2004 [[Ian McKellen]] played the role.
The [[Monty Python]] comedy troupe donned frocks and makeup, playing female roles while speaking in [[falsetto]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Cross-Dressing and Fish-Slapping, One Python at a Time |newspaper=The New York Times |date=22 February 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/22/arts/television/crossdressing-and-fishslapping-one-python-at-a-time.html |access-date=26 April 2019 |agency=The New York Times |last1=Martel |first1=Ned |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718121109/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/22/arts/television/crossdressing-and-fishslapping-one-python-at-a-time.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Character comics such as [[Benny Hill]] and [[Dick Emery]] drew upon several female identities. In the BBC's long-running sketch show ''[[The Dick Emery Show]]'' (broadcast from 1963 to 1981), Emery played Mandy, a busty peroxide blonde whose catchphrase, "Ooh, you are awful ... but I like you!", was given in response to a seemingly innocent remark made by her interviewer, but perceived by her as ribald double entendre.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Dick Emery Show |url=https://www.britishclassiccomedy.co.uk/ooh-you-are-awful-but-i-like-you |access-date=26 April 2019 |agency=British classic comedy}}</ref> The popular tradition of cross dressing in British comedy extended to the 1984 music video for [[Queen (band)|Queen]]'s "[[I Want to Break Free]]" where the band parody several female characters from the soap opera ''[[Coronation Street]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=10 things you may not know about Queen's biggest 80s hits |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/4C6GqGSRcDydqhJNh5xpgyZ/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-queens-biggest-80s-hits |first=Fraser |last=McAlpine |date=29 November 2018 |agency=BBC |access-date=6 January 2019 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718121446/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/4C6GqGSRcDydqhJNh5xpgyZ/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-queens-biggest-80s-hits |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Sexual fetishes===
[[Transvestic fetishism]] is a psychiatric diagnosis applied to people who are sexually aroused by the act of cross-dressing and experience significant distress or impairment – socially or occupationally – because of their behavior. The limit to [[gynephilic]] men in the fourth edition of ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' was abrogated with the passage of the DSM-5.<ref>http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Paraphilic%20Disorders%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123042559/http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Paraphilic%20Disorders%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |date=2016-11-23 }} DSM-5 Documents: Paraphilic Disorders Fact Sheet</ref>
Sometimes either [[cisgender]] member of
===Passing===
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==== Roberta "Bobbi" Gibb ====
[[Bobbi Gibb|Roberta "Bobbi" Gibb]] is the first woman to have competed in the [[Boston Marathon]]. In 1966 Bobbi Gibb wrote a letter to the [[Boston Athletic Association]] asking to participate in the race happening that year. When Gibb received her letter back in the mail she was faced with the news that her entry to the race was denied due to her gender. Rather than just accept her fate, Gibb did not take no for an answer and decided to run the marathon anyways—however, she would do it hidden as a man. On the day of the race Gibb showed up in an oversized sweatshirt, her brother's shorts, and men's running shoes. Gibb hid in the bushes until the race started and then joined in with the crowd. Eventually her fellow runners figured out Gibb's real gender but stated that they would make sure that she finished the race. Gibb ended up finishing her first Boston Marathon in 3 hours, 27 minutes and 40 seconds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boyer |first=Leroy |date=December 6, 2022 |title=RUNNING: Run for the Diamonds celebrates milestone |journal=Republican & Herald}}</ref> She crossed the finish line with blistered, bleeding feet from the men's running shoes she was wearing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Petri |first=Alexandra |date=October 11, 2021 |title=Roberta Gibb broke barriers in the Boston Marathon. Now there's a statue of her feet |url=https://advance.lexis.com/api/document?collection=news&id=urn:contentItem:63TP-S8P1-JBG3-61MD-00000-00&context=1516831. |journal=The New York Times |access-date=October 30, 2023 |archive-date=July 18, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718121447/https://signin.lexisnexis.com/lnaccess/app/signin?back=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fadvance.lexis.com%3A443%2Furl-api%2Flaapi%2Fdocument%3Fcollection%3Dnews%26id%3Durn%253AcontentItem%253A63TP-S8P1-JBG3-61MD-00000-00%26context%3D1516831.&aci=la |url-status=live }}</ref> Gibb's act of defiance influenced other women marathon runners of the time like [[Katherine Switzer]], who also registered under an alias to be able to run the race in 1967. It would not be until 1972 until there was an official women's race within the Boston Marathon.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}
==== Sam Kerr ====
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==== Joan of Arc ====
Born {{circa|1412}},<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joan of Arc |date=26 March 2024 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Joan-of-Arc |access-date= |archive-date=30 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130222443/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Joan-of-Arc |url-status=live }}</ref> St [[Joan of Arc]] or the Maid of Orleans is one of the oldest examples of gender disguise. At 13, after receiving a revelation that she was supposed to lead the French to victory over the English in the [[Hundred Years' War|100 years war]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joan of Arc -- World History |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Joan_of_Arc/ |access-date=}}</ref> [[Cross-dressing, gender identity, and sexuality of Joan of Arc|Joan donned the clothing]] of a male soldier in the [[French Army|French army]]. Joan was able to convince King Charles the VIII to allow her to take the lead of some of the French armies in order to help him get his crown back. Ultimately, Joan of Arc was successful in claiming victory over the English but was captured in 1430 and found guilty of [[heresy]], leading to her execution in [[1431]]. The impact of her actions was seen even after Joan's death
==== Deborah Sampson ====
Born in 1760 in [[Plympton, Massachusetts]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Deborah Sampson |url=https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/deborah-sampson?gclid=CjwKCAjwyNSoBhA9EiwA5aYlbyKd_p6BMuOINFc0a10m6ORAqIBvuaOgE1alHQCnOT_QC0dC5VMD_RoCXU4QAvD_BwE |website=National Women's History Museum |access-date=2023-10-10 |archive-date=2024-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718122010/https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/deborah-sampson |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Deborah Sampson]] was the first female soldier in the [[United States Army|US Army]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Deborah Sampson, U.S. Army |url=https://foundationforwomenwarriors.org/deborah-sampson-u-s-army/ |website=Foundation for Women Warriors |date=March 2017 |access-date=2023-10-10 |archive-date=2024-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718123622/https://foundationforwomenwarriors.org/deborah-sampson-u-s-army/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The only woman in the [[American Revolution|Revolution]] to receive a full [[Pension|military pension]], at age 18 Deborah took the name
These women are just a few among many who have disguised themselves as men in order to be able to fight in many different wars. Others who have used gender disguise for this purpose include [[Christian Davies|Kit Kavanaugh/Christian Davies]], [[Hannah Snell]], [[Sarah Emma Edmonds]], [[Frances Clayton]], [[Dorothy Lawrence]], [[Zoya Smirnow]], and [[Brita Olofsdotter]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Thomas |first=Heather |date=2021-03-30 |title=Women Who Dressed as Men and Made History {{!}} Headlines and Heroes |url=https://blogs.loc.gov/headlinesandheroes/2021/03/women-who-dressed-as-men-and-made-history/ |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=The Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='I Wanted to Do My Part': Women as Soldiers in Civil War America {{!}} Mercy Street Revealed |url=http://mercystreet.lunchbox.pbs.org/blogs/mercy-street-revealed/i-wanted-to-do-my-part-women-as-soldiers-in-civil-war-america/ |access-date=2023-11-08 |website='I Wanted to Do My Part': Women as Soldiers in Civil War America {{!}} Mercy Street Revealed |archive-date=2023-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324152544/http://mercystreet.lunchbox.pbs.org/blogs/mercy-street-revealed/i-wanted-to-do-my-part-women-as-soldiers-in-civil-war-america/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== Journalism and culture ===
In some instances, women in journalism deem
==== Norah Vincent ====
[[Norah Vincent]], author of the book ''[[Self-Made Man (book)|Self-Made Man: One Woman's Journey Into Manhood and Back Again]]'', used gender disguise in order to go undercover as a man to penetrate men's social circles and experience life as a man. In 2003, Vincent put her life on pause to adopt a new masculine identity as Ned Vincent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Self-Made Man: One Woman's Journey Into Manhood and Bac… |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/29434.Self_Made_Man |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> She worked with a makeup artist and vocal coach in order to convincingly play the role of a biological man. She wore an undersized sports bra, a stuffed jock strap, and size 11½ shoes to deceive those around her. In her book, Vincent makes discoveries about socialization, romance, sex, and stress as a man that leads her to conclude that,
==== Bacha posh ====
[[Bacha posh]], an
==Fashion==
[[File:vanessatv.jpg|thumb|Some male crossdressers seek a more subtle feminine image.]]
The actual determination of cross-dressing is largely [[Social constructionism|socially constructed]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Miqqi Alicia |date=May 1, 2014 |title=Cross-Dresser |url=https://doi.org/10.1215/23289252-2399632 |journal=Transgender Studies Quarterly |via=Duke University Press}}</ref> For example, in Western society, trousers have long been adopted for usage by women, and it is no longer regarded as cross-dressing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brucculieri |first=Julia |date=March 8, 2019 |title=Women And Pants: A Timeline Of Fashion Liberation |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/women-and-pants-fashion-liberation_l_5c7ec7f7e4b0e62f69e729ec
[[Cosplaying]] may also involve cross-dressing, for some females may wish to dress as a male, and vice versa (see [[Crossplay (cosplay)|crossplay]]). Females may choose to chest bind while cosplaying a male character.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-29 |title=Chest or breast binding: Tips, side effects, safety, and more |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/breast-binding |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |language=en}}</ref>
While creating a more feminine figure, male cross-dressers will may utilize [[breast forms]] or breast plates to give the appearance of breasts.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Germann |first=Olivia |date=2018 |title=Gender Performance: From the Freak Show to Modern Drag |url=https://openjournals.bsu.edu/dlr/article/download/2645/1567/4275 |journal=Digital Literature Review |volume=3 |pages=72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Piper |first=Dannielle |date=June 12, 2019 |title=The Family-Owned Store that Helps Transgender Customers Find the Perfect Fit |url=https://thetyee.ca/News/2019/06/12/Family-Owned-Store-Breast-Forms-Helps-Transgender-Customers/ |work=The Tyee}}</ref> Some male cross-dressers may also cinch their waists or use padding to create a profile that appears more stereotypically feminine.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Spataro |first=Joanne |date=2017-05-04 |title='Drag Race' Tells Us a Lot About the Queens' Jacked Up Eating Habits |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/mgmjzy/drag-race-tells-us-a-lot-about-the-queens-jacked-up-eating-habits |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=Vice |language=en |archive-date=2024-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307013345/https://www.vice.com/en/article/mgmjzy/drag-race-tells-us-a-lot-about-the-queens-jacked-up-eating-habits |url-status=live }}</ref>
While most male cross-dressers utilize clothing associated with modern women, some are involved in subcultures that involve dressing as little girls<ref name="Bent">{{Cite book |last=Bent |first=Rosalie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_KoDwAAQBAJ&q=%2522adult%2520little%2520girl%2522%2520age%2520play&pg=PT23 |title=Dealing With the Baby In Your Bed!: Learning to Live With the Adult Baby In Your Relationship |date=2019-08-14 |publisher=AB Discovery |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bennett">{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8gvEAAAQBAJ&q=petticoat |title=Clinical Psychology: Psychopathology Through the Lifespan: Psychopathology through the Lifespan |date=2015-08-16 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (UK) |isbn=978-0-335-24770-7 |language=en}}</ref> or in [[vintage clothing]]. Some such men have written that they enjoy dressing as femininely as possible, so they wear frilly dresses with lace and ribbons, [[bridal gown]]s complete with veils, as well as multiple [[petticoat]]s, [[corset]]s, [[girdle]]s and/or [[garter belt]]s with [[nylon stockings]].
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The term ''underdressing'' is used by male cross-dressers to describe wearing female undergarments such as panties under their male clothes. The famous low-budget film-maker [[Edward D. Wood Jr.]] (who also went out in public dressed in drag as "Shirley", his female alter ego<ref>Craig, Rob (2009). ''Ed Wood, Mad Genius: A Critical Study of the Films''. pg. 108. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5423-5.</ref>) said he often wore women's underwear under his military uniform as a Marine during [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Corliss|first=Richard|date=June 1, 1992|title=The World's Worst Director|magazine=Time|volume=139|page=79|via=Biography Reference Bank}}</ref> ''Female masking'' is a form of cross-dressing in which men wear masks that present them as female.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://vicestyle.com/en/news/today/post/female-masking | title=Female Masking | publisher=Vice Style | author=Jamie Clifton | date=August 30, 2011 | access-date=2012-02-07 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717035229/http://vicestyle.com/en/news/today/post/female-masking | archive-date=July 17, 2012 }}</ref>
Some [[Drag king|drag kings]] may use binders or chest plates to give the impression of a more stereotypically male physique, but others forego this.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rowello |first=Lauren |date=2024-05-29 |title=Philly Drag Kings: Challenges and the push for inclusion |url=https://epgn.com/2024/05/29/drag-kings-philly-challenges/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Philadelphia Gay News |language=en-US}}</ref> They may also paste or draw on fake facial hair. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-11-12 |title=The Many Styles Of Drag Kings, Photographed In And Out Of Drag |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/drag-kings_l_5db9c682e4b00d83f72159c8 |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=HuffPost |language=en |archive-date=2021-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080628/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/drag-kings_l_5db9c682e4b00d83f72159c8 |url-status=live }}</ref> Drag kings
▲Some [[Drag king|drag kings]] may use binders or chest plates to give the impression of a more stereotypically male physique, but others forego this.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rowello |first=Lauren |date=2024-05-29 |title=Philly Drag Kings: Challenges and the push for inclusion |url=https://epgn.com/2024/05/29/drag-kings-philly-challenges/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Philadelphia Gay News |language=en-US}}</ref> They may also paste or draw on fake facial hair. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-11-12 |title=The Many Styles Of Drag Kings, Photographed In And Out Of Drag |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/drag-kings_l_5db9c682e4b00d83f72159c8 |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref> Drag kings and [[Assigned female|assigned female at birth]] cosplayers may use socks or a phallic prosthetic for packing to create the appearance of a male bulge.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Haug |first=Oliver |date=2023-11-09 |title=Everything You Need to Know About Packers |url=https://www.them.us/story/trans-packer-how-to-use-buy-and-clean |access-date=2024-07-06 |website=Them |language=en-US}}</ref>
==Social issues==
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==Festivals==
Celebrations of cross-dressing occur in widespread cultures. The [[Abissa]] festival in Côte d'Ivoire,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |title=Bibliographic Guide to Dance |date=1992 |page=4 }}</ref> [[Ofudamaki]] in Japan,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Egli |first1=Justin |title=Visiting an ancient Japanese cross-dressing festival |url=http://www.dazeddigital.com/artsandculture/article/32036/1/visiting-an-ancient-japanese-cross-dressing-festival |access-date=12 December 2018 |work=Dazed |date=13 July 2016 |language=en |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215222551/http://www.dazeddigital.com/artsandculture/article/32036/1/visiting-an-ancient-japanese-cross-dressing-festival |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Kottankulangara Festival]] in India<ref>{{cite news |title=Cross-dressing for the Goddess - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cross-dressing-for-the-Goddess/articleshow/2929677.cms? |access-date=12 December 2018 |work=The Times of India |date=Apr 6, 2008}}</ref> are all examples of this.
==Analysis==
Advocacy for social change has done much to relax the constrictions of gender roles on men and women, but they are still subject to prejudice from some people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=Judith |title=Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-78323-4 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Halberstam |first1=Judith |last2=Halberstam |first2=Jack |title=Female Masculinity |date=1998 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-2243-6 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}</ref><ref>Epstein, Julia, Straub, Kristina; Eds, Body Guards: The Cultural Politics of Gender Ambiguity, Routledge, London, 1991</ref> It is noticeable that as being transgender becomes more socially accepted as a normal human condition, the prejudices against cross-dressing are changing quite quickly, just as the similar prejudices against homosexuals have changed rapidly in recent decades.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/06/13/chapter-2-social-acceptance/|title=A Survey of LGBT Americans - Chapter 2: Social Acceptance|date=2013-06-13|work=Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project|access-date=2018-03-07|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116215557/https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/06/13/chapter-2-social-acceptance/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The reason it is so hard to have statistics for female cross-dressers is that the line where cross-dressing stops and cross-dressing begins{{clarify|reason=same phrase twice|date=April 2024}} has become blurred, whereas the same line for men is as well defined as ever. This is one of the many issues being addressed by third wave feminism as well as the modern-day [[masculism|masculist]] movement.
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The general culture{{clarify|reason=Which culture? Where?|date=May 2021}} has very mixed views about cross-dressing. A woman who wears her husband's shirt to bed is considered attractive, while a man who wears his wife's nightgown to bed may be considered transgressive. [[Marlene Dietrich]] in a tuxedo was considered very erotic; [[Jack Lemmon]] in a dress was considered ridiculous.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blechner |first1=Mark J. |title=Sex Changes: Transformations in Society and Psychoanalysis |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-99435-4 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}</ref> All this may result from an overall gender role rigidity for males; that is, because of the prevalent gender dynamic throughout the world, men frequently encounter discrimination when deviating from masculine gender norms, particularly violations of [[heteronormativity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/scmsAdmin/media/users/lec321/Sirin_Articles/Sirin_McCriery__Mahalik_2004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418220633/http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/scmsAdmin/media/users/lec321/Sirin_Articles/Sirin_McCriery__Mahalik_2004.pdf |archive-date=2014-04-18 |url-status=live |title=Differential Reactions to Men and Women's Gender Role Transgressions: Perceptions of Social Status, Sexual Orientation, and Value Dissimilarity |publisher=NYU |access-date=1 June 2013 }}</ref> A man's adoption of feminine clothing is often considered a going down in the gendered social order whereas a woman's adoption of what are traditionally men's clothing (at least in the English-speaking world) has less of an impact because women have been traditionally subordinate to men, unable to affect serious change through style of dress. Thus when a male cross-dresser puts on his clothes, he transforms into the quasi-female and thereby becomes an embodiment of the conflicted gender dynamic. Following the work of [[Judith Butler]], gender proceeds along through ritualized performances, but in male cross-dressing it becomes a performative "breaking" of the masculine and a "subversive repetition" of the feminine.<ref name=Butler>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Judith|title=Performative Acts and Gender Construction: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory|url=http://www.mariabuszek.com/kcai/PoMoSeminar/Readings/BtlrPerfActs.pdf|access-date=1 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112054310/http://www.mariabuszek.com/kcai/PoMoSeminar/Readings/BtlrPerfActs.pdf|archive-date=12 January 2012}}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=May 2022}}
Psychoanalysts today do not regard cross-dressing by itself as a psychological problem, unless it interferes with a person's life. "For instance
== Cross-dressing in the 21st century ==
=== Fashion trends ===
[[File:Camp - Notes on Fashion at the Met (73835).jpg|thumb|[[Camp (style)|Camp fashion]] made an appearance during the 2019 [[Met Gala]] which had the theme of "Camp: Notes on Fashion
Cross-dressing today is much more common and normalized
Camp is a style of fashion that has had a long history extending all the way back to the Victorian era to the modern era. During the [[Victorian era]] up until the mid-20th century, it was defined as an exaggerated and flamboyant style of dressing.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |title=Camp Fashion Unveiled: Stunning Examples and the 3 Key Elements |url=https://usatales.com/what-is-camp-fashion-examples-and-elements/ |date=30 November 2022 |access-date=1 December 2022 |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201064448/https://usatales.com/what-is-camp-fashion-examples-and-elements/ |url-status=dead }}{{unreliable source?|date=November 2023}}</ref> This was typically associated with ideas of [[effeminacy]], de-masculization, and homosexuality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Erika W. |title=Ahead Of The Met Gala, Remember: 'You Can't Have Camp Without Queer' |url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2019/05/231016/camp-fashion-gay-culture-drag-lgbtq-history |work=Refinery29 |date=18 April 2019 |access-date=1 December 2022 |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201064446/https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2019/05/231016/camp-fashion-gay-culture-drag-lgbtq-history |url-status=live }}</ref> As the trend entered the 20th century, it also developed an association with a lack of conduct, creating the connotation that those who engaged in Camp are unrefined, improper, distasteful, and, essentially, undignified. Though this was its former understanding, Camp has now developed a new role in the fashion industry. It is considered a fashion style that has "failed seriousness" and has instead become a fun way of self-expression. Thanks to its integration with high fashion and extravagance, Camp is now seen as a high art form of absurdity: including loud, vibrant, bold, fun, and empty frivolity.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:RuPaul at Dragcon 2019 by dvsross (cropped).jpg|192x192px|thumb|Drag icon [[RuPaul]] speaking at [[RuPaul's DragCon LA|RuPaul's DragCon]] in Los Angeles in 2019.|left]]
Camp is often used in drag culture as a method of exaggerating or inversing traditional conceptions of what it means to be feminine. In actuality, the QTPOC community has had a large impact on Camp. This is exhibited by [[ballroom culture]], camp/glamour queens, Black '70s funk, Caribbean Carnival costumes, Blaxploitation movies, "pimp/player fashion", and more. This notion has also been materialized by camp icons such as [[Josephine Baker]] and [[RuPaul]].<ref name=":0" />
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Androgynous fashion is described as neither masculine nor feminine rather it is the embodiment of a gender inclusive and sexually neutral fashion of expression. The general understanding of androgynous fashion is mixing both masculine and feminine pieces with the goal of producing a look that has no visual differentiations between one gender or another. This look is achieved by masking the general body so that one cannot identify the biological sex of an individual given the silhouette of the clothing pieces: Therefore, many androgynous looks include looser, baggier clothing that can conceal curves in the female body or using more "feminine" fabrics and prints for men.
[[File:Harry Styles - St. Paul, MN 7 1 2018 (41393943120).jpg|thumb|251x251px|Musician [[Harry Styles]] wearing a shimmery [[Pussy bow|pussy-bow]] blouse at a concert in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|Saint Paul]] in 2018.]]
Both of these style forms have been normalized and popularized by celebrities such as [[Harry Styles]], [[Timothée Chalamet]], [[Billie Eilish]], [[
=== Societal changes ===
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Beyond fashion, cross-dressing in non-Western countries has not fully outgrown the negative connotations that it has in the West. For instance, many Eastern and Southeastern Asian countries have a narrative of discrimination and stigma against LGBTQ+ and cross-dressing individuals. This is especially evident in the post-pandemic world. During this time, it was clear to see the failures of these governments to provide sufficient support to these individuals due to a lack of legal services, lack of job opportunity, and more. For instance, to be able to receive government aid, these individuals need to be able to quickly change their legal name, gender, and other information on official ID documents.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2022-11-14 |title=Asia and the Pacific Islands: Pandemic's disproportionate impact on transgender people should be "wake-up call" to governments |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/11/asia-pacific-pandemics-transgender-rights/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref> This fault augmented the challenges of income loss, food insecurity, safe housing, healthcare, and more for many trans and cross-dressing individuals. This was especially pertinent as many of these individuals relied on entertainment and sex work for income. With the pandemic removing these job opportunities, the stigmatisation and discrimination against these individuals only increased, especially in Southeast Asian countries.<ref name=":2" />
On the other hand, some Asian countries have grown to be more accepting of cross-dressing as modernization has increased. For instance, among Japan's niche communities, there exists the [[otokonoko]]. This is a group of male-assigned individuals who engage in female cross-dressing as a form of gender expression. This trend originated with [[manga]] and grew with an increase in [[Maid café|maid cafes]], [[cosplay]]ing, and more in the 2010s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ripley |first1=Will |title=A 51-year-old male schoolgirl? Meet Tokyo's inspirational cross-dresser |url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/07/19/world/asia/japan-inspirational-cross-dresser/index.html |work=CNN |date=20 July 2014 |access-date=1 December 2022 |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201073100/https://www.cnn.com/2014/07/19/world/asia/japan-inspirational-cross-dresser/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> With the normalization of this through cosplay, cross-dressing has become a large part of [[otaku]] and [[anime]] culture.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-11-10 |title=LSA100: Rule Breaker Hakken is comfortable in their own skin, in cosplay and in life |url=https://www.lifestyleasia.com/kl/digital-cover/lsa100-rule-breaker-hakken-cosplayer/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=Lifestyle Asia Kuala Lumpur |language=en-US}}</ref>
In 2023, [[Death of Noor Alsaffar|Noor Alsaffar]], an Iraqi vlogger and model, who described themselves as a cross-dresser, was murdered.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-27 |title=Iraqi social media influencer Um Fahad shot dead by motorbike gunman in Baghdad - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/iraq-investigating-killing-um-fahad-social-media-influencer/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427201521/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/iraq-investigating-killing-um-fahad-social-media-influencer/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2024-04-27 |title=Iraqi Authorities Investigate Killing of TikTok Star |url=https://time.com/6971797/iraqi-authorities-investigate-tiktok-star-om-fahad-killing/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |magazine=TIME |language=en |archive-date=2024-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427211650/https://time.com/6971797/iraqi-authorities-investigate-tiktok-star-om-fahad-killing/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Popular Iraqi female TikTok star shot dead in Baghdad night attack |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/27/iraqi-tiktok-star-om-fahad-shot-dead-in-baghdad-night-attack |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=2024-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427183634/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/27/iraqi-tiktok-star-om-fahad-shot-dead-in-baghdad-night-attack |url-status=live }}</ref> The killing of Alsaffar appears to be linked to an increase in homophobia and transphobia in Iraq.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |last=Morey |first=Alice |date=2023-09-29 |title=Popular Iraqi TikToker allegedly shot dead in Baghdad |url=https://www.gaytimes.co.uk/life/popular-iraqi-tiktoker-shot-dead-in-baghdad/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=GAY TIMES |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428104911/https://www.gaytimes.co.uk/life/popular-iraqi-tiktoker-shot-dead-in-baghdad/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Across media{{Anchor|Literature}}==
{{Main|Cross-dressing in literature|Cross-dressing in film and television|Cross-dressing in music and opera}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U0920-507, Lucie Höflich.jpg|thumb|255x255px|Actress [[Lucie Höflich]] portraying Viola in a [[Berlin]] production of [[Twelfth Night]] in 1907.]]
Women dressed as men, and less often men dressed as women, is a common trope in fiction<ref name="C&G 395">Clute & Grant 1997, p. 395</ref> and folklore. For example, in [[Thrymskvitha]], [[Thor]] disguised himself as [[Freya]].<ref name="C&G 395" /> These [[disguise]]s were also popular in [[Gothic fiction]], such as in works by [[Charles Dickens]], [[Alexandre Dumas, père]], and [[Eugène Sue]],<ref name="C&G 395" /> and in a number of [[Shakespeare]]'s plays, such as ''[[Twelfth Night]]''.
In [[science fiction]], [[fantasy]] and [[women's literature]], this [[literary motif]] is occasionally taken further, with literal transformation of a character from male to female or vice versa.
Other popular examples of gender disguise include ''[[Madame Doubtfire]]'' (published as ''Alias Madame Doubtfire'' in the United States) and its movie adaptation ''[[Mrs. Doubtfire]]'', featuring a man disguised as a woman.<ref>Anita Silvey [https://books.google.com/books?id=8GUNHGutszEC&dq=characters+disguised+as+human&pg=PA284 The essential guide to children's books and their creators] p.155</ref> Similarly, the movie ''[[Tootsie]]'' features Dustin Hoffman disguised as a woman, while the movie ''[[The Associate (1996 film)|The Associate]]'' features Whoopi Goldberg disguised as a man. Japanese fashion designer and [[visual kei]] musician [[Mana (Japanese musician)|Mana]] of the bands [[Malice Mizer]] and [[Moi dix Mois]] is notable for wearing traditionally female clothes. He is credited with popularizing cross-dressing among visual kei bands.<ref>{{cite web|title=【インタビュー】Mana × Közi、MALICE MIZERを語る「Kamiの約束が実現できる」|url=https://www.barks.jp/news/?id=1000158491&page=3|work=Barks|language=Japanese|date=2018-08-29|accessdate=2024-05-15|archive-date=2021-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426024350/https://www.barks.jp/news/?id=1000158491&page=3|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Medical views==
The [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]] listed ''dual-role transvestism'' (non-sexual cross-dressing)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en#/F64.1 |title=ICD-10 Version:2016 |website=icd.who.int |access-date=2019-10-11 |archive-date=2018-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105125609/http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en#/F64.1 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''fetishistic transvestism'' (cross-dressing for sexual pleasure) as disorders in [[ICD-10|its 10th edition]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en#/F65.1 |title=ICD-10 Version:2016 |website=icd.who.int |access-date=2019-10-11 |archive-date=2018-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105125609/http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en#/F65.1 |url-status=live }}</ref> but both were removed for the [[ICD-11|11th edition]], which came into effect in 2022.<ref name="lgbtq">{{Cite web |url=https://www.lgbtqnation.com/2019/05/world-health-organization-will-no-longer-classify-transgender-mental-disorder/ |title=The World Health Organization will no longer classify being transgender as a 'mental disorder' |last=Bollinger |first=Alex |date=2019-05-28 |website=LGBTQ Nation |access-date=2019-10-11 |archive-date=2021-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308211753/https://www.lgbtqnation.com/2019/05/world-health-organization-will-no-longer-classify-transgender-mental-disorder/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Transvestic fetishism]] is a psychiatric diagnosis applied to people who are sexually aroused by the act of cross-dressing and experience significant distress or impairment – socially or occupationally – because of their behavior.<ref name="DSM5 2013">{{cite web |title=Paraphilic Disorders Fact Sheet |website=dsm5.org |date=2013-05-15 |url=https://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Paraphilic%20Disorders%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123042559/https://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Paraphilic%20Disorders%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-23 |url-status=dead |access-date=2024-10-08 }}</ref> Under the name transvestic disorder, it is categorized as a paraphiliac disorder in the [[DSM-5]].<ref name="DSM-5-paraphillic">{{Cite book
| last=American Psychiatric Association
| year=2013
| title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
| edition=Fifth
| publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing
| location=Arlington, VA
| pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/685 685–705]
| isbn=978-0-89042-555-8
| url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/685
}}</ref> The DSM-5 defines a paraphilic disorder as "a paraphilia that is currently causing distress or impairment to the individual or a paraphilia whose satisfaction has entailed personal harm, or risk of harm, to others", adding that [[paraphilia|paraphilias]] do not require or justify psychiatric treatment in themselves.<ref name="DSM-5, intro">{{cite book|title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|edition=Fifth|chapter=Paraphilic Disorders|year=2013|publisher=[[American Psychiatric Publishing]]|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|pages=685–686}}</ref>
==See also==
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* [[Femboy]]
* [[Femminiello]]
* [[Gender-based dress codes]]
* [[Gender identity]]
* [[Gender variance]]
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==Notes==
{{notelist}}b. Reclaiming Two-Spirits, by Gregory D. Smithers. Beacon Press Books, copyright 2022 gives an excellent historical perspective of spirituality in the indigenous persons of Native Americal.
== Further reading ==
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