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{{Short description|Afro-Cuban drum}}
{{Redirect|Bongos|the American pop band|the Bongos|the song|Bongos (song)||Bongo (disambiguation)}}{{Infobox instrument
| name =
| background = percussion
| image = Bongos Meinl HB100-NT.jpg
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| hornbostel_sachs_desc = Sets of single-skin conical drums
| developed = Late 19th century in Cuba
| related = {{hlist|Bokú|[[
}}
[[File:Bongo sound.wav|thumb|261x261px|Bongos playing a [[cumbia]] beat]]
'''Bongos''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''bongó'') are an [[Afro-Cubans|Afro-Cuban]] [[percussion instrument]] consisting of a pair of small open bottomed [[hand drum]]s of different sizes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strain |first=James Allen |url= |title=A Dictionary for the Modern Percussionist and Drummer |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-8108-8693-3 |page=23 |oclc=974035735 |quote=}}</ref> The pair consists of the larger ''hembra'' ({{Literally|female}}) and the smaller ''macho'' ({{Literally|male}}),
Bongos originated in eastern Cuba at the end of the 19th century, possibly from a pair of larger drums such as the bokú. These older, larger bongos are known as ''bongó del monte'' and played in [[changüí]]. The smaller bongos used in son cubano were popular across Cuba by the 1910s and reached the concert halls of the eastern United States in the 1930s. By the 1940s, bongos and congas were sharing the stage as son ensembles grew in size and Latin music began to cross-pollinate with [[jazz]] and other genres. During the second half of the 20th century, bongos began to be played in a wide variety of genres, from [[Bachata (music)|bachata]] to [[Latin rock]].{{sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=22–41}}
== Construction ==
Bongo drums are about {{convert|20|cm|inch|0}} high and have diameters of approximately {{convert|20|cm|inch|0}} and {{convert|25|cm|inch|0}}.<ref name="BEPM">{{cite book |last1=Wacker |first1=Jonathan |title=Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Volume II: Performance and Production |date=2003 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9780826463227 |editor1-last=Shepherd |editor1-first=John |location=London, UK |page=351 |language=en |chapter=Bongo drums |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pJvzEzjahkQC&pg=PA351}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=Nolan |title=Encyclopedia of Latin American Popular Music |date=2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313087943 |editor-last1=Torres |editor-first1=George |pages=52–53 |language=en |chapter=Bongó |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MX5BXxjwV9cC&pg=PA52}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ortiz |first1=Fernando |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXpdAAAAMAAJ |title=Nuevo catauro de cubanismos |date=1985 |publisher=Editorial de Ciencias Sociales |page=82 |language=es |author1-link=Fernando Ortiz Fernández}}</ref> The shells of the drums and the bridge (the small block that joins them) are usually made of wood, although fiberglass is also common. The heads are typically made of [[calfskin]] and attached to the shells via steel hardware that enables their tuning (lug tuning). Originally, metal tacks were used, so
== Technique ==▼
[[File:Grupo Changüí de Guantánamo.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Grupo Changüí de Guantánamo in 1962. The ''bongosero'' (left) is playing ''bongó de monte'', which is much taller than the standard ''bongó''.]]▼
Bongo drums produce relatively [[Pitch (music)|high-pitched]] sounds compared to conga drums, and should be held behind the [[knee]]s with the larger drum on the right when [[right-handed]]. It is most often played by hand and is especially associated in Cuban music with a steady pattern or [[ostinato]] of eighth-notes known as the ''martillo'' (hammer).{{sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=22–41}} They are traditionally played by striking the edge of the drumheads with the fingers and palms. The [[glissando]] used with ''bongó de monte'', called ''bramido'' (howl), is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. Usually, this is done during the climax of a changüí performance.<ref name="Lapidus" /> The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva
When playing son cubano and other popular genres, the ''macho'' is on the left and the ''hembra'' on the right. In changüí, the ''bongó de monte'' is positioned the opposite way.<ref name="Lapidus" /> Playing patterns are also different in changüí, where the ''bongó'' does not follow a steady beat. Instead, it usually marks [[Off-beat (music)|offbeats]] and beat four while improvising.<ref name="Lapidus" /> Thus, the playing technique in changüí resembles that of the congas (moreover, their pitch is often lower than both bongos and congas).<ref name="Lapidus" /> This reflects it origin, since the ''bongó del monte'' evolved from pairs of ''bokús'', a larger drum from eastern Cuba similar to the conga.<ref name="Lapidus" />▼
Bongos can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras and bands. In [[Western classical music|classical music]] performances, bongos are usually struck with [[Percussion mallet|mallets]] or [[Drum stick|drumsticks]]. Examples of pieces featuring bongos include ''[[Ionisation (Varèse)|Ionisation]]'' by Varèse (1931), ''[[Le Marteau sans maître]]'' by Boulez (1955) and ''[[In seinem Garten liebt Don Perlimplin Belisa]]'' by Fortner (1962).{{sfn|Beck|
== History ==
===
[[File:Desi Arnaz 1950.JPG|right|thumb|300x300px|[[Desi Arnaz]] playing a bokú in the 1940s. His father had banned the bongos 20 years earlier. The bokú is the most likely ancestor of the bongos.]]
The origin of the bongo is largely unclear. Its use was first documented in the
As explained by eastern Cuban informants to Benjamin Lapidus, the oral tradition among changüí musicians in Oriente is that the ''bongó'' originated as a replacement for pairs of bokús that were slung over the player's knee.<ref name="Lapidus" /> Bokús are tall drums popular in the eastern provinces, particularly during carnival processions, and featured in early changüí groups. Eventually, these drums were cut in half into bongos. This may explain why the ''bongó del monte'' used in changüí is larger than the bongos used in son. In [[Holguín]], similar drums which are considered possible ancestors of the ''bongó'' are known as ''tahona'', which might have a been a generic word for drum in Cuba and also refers to an [[Tahona|unrelated music genre]].{{sfn|Rodríguez|1997|p=262}} Other generic terms that have been used to refer to bongos across eastern Cuba include tahonitas, tambora, atambora and tumba.{{sfn|Rodríguez|1997|p=412}}
Most sources on Afro-Cuban cultural history argue that the bongo derives from [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] drum models from Central Africa, noticeable in the open bottoms. The strong historical presence of Africans from the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Congo/Angola region]] in Eastern Cuba (where the bongo first appeared) makes such an influence possible. Moreover, Central African/Congo influences are also documented in both son cubano and changüí, and initially the development of the bongo drum was in parallel with these genres. From such conceptual African drum models, the bongo developed further in Cuba itself, and some historians state that the attaching of the two drums was a later invention that took place in Cuba. Therefore, the instrument has been described as "African in concept but Cuban in invention".<ref name="Sublette">{{cite book |last1=Sublette |first1=Ned |url=https://archive.org/details/cubaitsmusicfrom00subl |title=Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo |date=2004 |publisher=Chicago Review Press |isbn=9781569764206 |location=Chicago, IL |pages=338–339 |lccn=2003022097 |url-access=registration}}</ref> This has been disputed, however, by several historians (most notably Haroldo Dilla Alfonso).{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}▼
▲
Less supported hypotheses for the origin of the bongos, largely based on their superficial similarity to other twin drums, include the Cuban pailas and [[timbales]] (descended from European tympani), the Arab [[Naqareh|nakers]], the North African [[tbilat]] (called "African clay bongos"),{{sfn|Beck|2013|p=91}} the Indian [[tabla]], etc.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blades |first1=James |title=Percussion Instruments and Their History |date=1992 |publisher=Bold Strummer |isbn=978-0-933224-61-2 |page=450 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a8V3Z6j2ExEC&pg=PA450 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Salloum |first1=Trevor |title=Bongo Drumming: Beyond the Basics: Beyond the Basics |date=2016 |publisher=Mel Bay |isbn=978-1-61911-599-6 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRoxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |language=en}}</ref>
=== Evolution and popularization ===
[[File:SextHabanero72.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|[[Sexteto Habanero]] in 1925. First on the left is Agustín Gutiérrez, the ''bongosero''. His tuning lamp is on the ground (circled).]]
The bongo entered Cuban popular music as a key instrument of early son ensembles, quickly becoming—due to the increasing popularity of the son—"the first instrument with an undeniable African past to be accepted in Cuban “society” circles".{{sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=22–41}} This is attested, for example, in poems by [[Nicolás Guillén]].{{sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=22–41}} As son evolved and distanced itself from its precursor, the changüí, so did the bongos. The bongos used in changüí, known as ''bongó de monte'', are larger and tuned lower than their modern counterparts, have tack-heads instead of tunable hardware, and play in a manner similar to the lead conga drum ([[Quinto (drum)|quinto]]) and other folkloric lead drum parts.<ref name="Lapidus"
During the ''sexteto'' era, son groups began performing and touring more than ever before, and for the first time, recordings were being made. It was in this context that the first great innovators of the bongo made their mark, and unlike their predecessors, their names were not lost in time.{{sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=22–41}} Of particular note were Óscar Sotolongo of the [[Sexteto Habanero]] and José Manuel Carriera Incharte "El Chino" of the [[Sexteto Nacional]], the two leading groups of the 1920s and '30s. Sotolongo himself would later leave the Habanero and direct his own group, the Conjunto Típico Cubano.<ref>Orejuela p. 202.</ref> His replacement was Agustín Gutiérrez "Manana", who is widely considered one of the most influential ''bongoseros'', partly due to his condition as an [[Abakuá]] member, which allowed him to develop techniques based on the ekué (secret drum) drumming of such society.<ref name="Sublette" /> In 1930, Sotolongo's son, Andrés Sotolongo replaced Gutiérrez in the Habanero.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cp1qAAAAMAAJ Encuentro de la cultura cubana]''. Asociación Encuentro de la Cultura Cubana. 2003. Issues 28–31.</ref> Decades later, at 82 years of age, Andrés Sotolongo was recorded for the ''Routes of Rhythm'' documentary playing alongside [[Isaac Oviedo]].<ref>Liner notes of ''Cuban Dance Party: Routes of Rhythm Volume 2'' (1990). Rounder Records.</ref>
{{Quote box
|quote = "The Cuban government has prohibited the beating of the African bongo drum. The restriction carries heavy penalties on the ground that the monotonous reverberations induce a state of savagery in ignorant listeners and a state of irritation in others."
|source = [[Life (magazine)|''Life'']] magazine, 1929<ref name="Life"/>
|width = 300px
|qalign = center
|quoted = 1
|salign=right
}}
In 1929, bongos and other drums were banned by the Cuban government.<ref name="Life">{{cite magazine |title=Havana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3vsZAAAAMAAJ |magazine=Life |issue=93 |date=1929 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Cuba Bans Beating of African Bongo Drum; Used as Jungle Wireless and in Voodoo Rites |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1929/02/17/archives/cuba-bans-beating-of-african-bongo-drum-used-as-jungle-wireless-and.html |work=The New York Times |date=17 February 1929}}</ref> This prohibition extended that of 1925, which outlawed congas in the context of street carnivals, but not the comparsas themselves. Ironically, this original ban was enacted by the mayor of Santiago de Cuba, [[Desiderio Alberto Arnaz II|Desiderio Arnaz II]], father of [[Desi Arnaz]], who later popularized congas, bongos and bokús across America and the world. This repression of Afro-Cuban culture was denounced by poets in the [[Afrocubanismo]] such as Guillén, whose "Canción del bongó" (Song of the bongo) was published in 1931.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=Keith |editor1-last=Greene |editor1-first=Brenda M. |title=The African Presence and Influence on the Cultures of the Americas |date=11 May 2010 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-2242-8 |page=9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVUaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |language=en |chapter=Nicolás Guillén: Open Social Concern and Subtle Artistic Mastery}}</ref>
The 1930s saw an increase in the technical skill of ''bongoseros'', as evidenced by Clemente "Chicho" Piquero, whose virtuosic performances inspired a young [[Mongo Santamaría]] to take up the instrument.{{Sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=85}}{{refn|Some musicians were able to effectively translate their technical skill into pure showmanship, as was the case with Lázaro Pla, known as Manteca, who toured with the Lecuona Cuban Boys in the 1940s and became an attraction in Havana in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Acosta|first1=Leonardo|title=Cubano Be, Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba|date=2003|publisher=Smithsonian Books|location=Washington, DC|page=75|isbn=9781588345479|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idLwCwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Collazo|first1=Bobby|title=La última noche que pasé contigo|date=1987|publisher=Cubanacán|location=San Juan, PR|page=417|language=Spanish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWRaAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> He later moved to [[Miami]] and released two albums as a leader in the 1970s.|group=note}} By the early 1940s, Santamaría had become a master of the instrument, performing with the [[Lecuona Cuban Boys]], [[Sonora Matancera]], [[Conjunto Matamoros]] and [[Arsenio Rodríguez]]'s "Conjunto Segundo" among others.{{sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=85}} Arsenio had pioneered the ''[[Conjunto#Cuban conjunto|conjunto]]'' format by incorporating a ''tumbadora'' ([[conga drum]]) into the rhythm section and having the ''bongosero'' double on cowbell. Arsenio's long-time ''bongosero'' was Antolín "Papa Kila" Suárez, who is often cited as one of the greatest of his time along with Pedro Mena of the Conjunto Matamoros.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Salloum |first1=Trevor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwQqm41Sq5YC |title=Fun with Bongos |date=2007 |publisher=Mel Bay |isbn=9781610656641 |location=Pacific, MO |page=2}}</ref> Arsenio's group also helped break the barriers of race, which particularly affected ''bongoseros''. For example, the [[Orquesta Casino de la Playa]] did not allow their black ''bongosero'' Ramón Castro to perform on stage, nor was Arsenio allowed on the tres.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Robin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ytvh3Nkce7QC |title=Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940 |date=1997 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=9780822971856 |location=Pittsburgh, PA |page=143 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vkh3b |jstor=j.ctt5vkh3b}}</ref> The Casino de la Playa would also feature ''bongosero'' Cándido Requena, who later joined the Conjunto Kubavana and Conjunto Niágara, and became one of Cuba's foremost makers of bongos and ''tumbadoras''.{{Sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=101–102}} Requena, as well as the Vergara brothers, were instrumental in the technological improvement of bongos and congas.<ref name="Sublette572">Sublette p. 572.</ref> Before the advent of mechanically tunable bongos and congas in the 1940s, both instruments used to be tuned with [[Oil lamp|oil]] or [[kerosene lamps]]. The heat of the flame was used to contract the [[drumhead]] to achieve the desired sound.<ref name="Sublette572" />
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=== In the United States ===
[[File:(Portrait_of_Machito,_Jose_Mangual,_and_Carlos_Vidal(%3F),_Glen_Island_Casino,_New_York,_N.Y.,_ca._July_1947)_(LOC)_(5062512234).jpg|right|thumb|402x402px|[[José Mangual Sr.|Jose Mangual, Sr]]. on bongos (left) alongside Machito on [[maracas]] and [[Carlos Vidal Bolado|Carlos Vidal]] on conga at the Glen Island Casino, New York, 1947.]]
In the 1920s, bongos were first played in the United States during the recording sessions of Cuban son ensembles such as [[Sexteto Nacional]], which recorded in [[New York City]] for [[Columbia Records]]. Among the tracks recorded in their 1927 sessions was "Viva el bongó",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spottswood |first1=Richard K. |title=Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United States, 1893-1942. Vol. 4: Spanish, Portuguese, Philippines, Basque |date=1990 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-01722-3 |page=2147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNh8VBZHQ2YC&pg=PA2147 |language=en}}</ref> a song about the instrument itself which—unlike the stylized Cuban son popular at the time—brought percussion to the foreground.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Robin |editor1-last=de Jong |editor1-first=Nanette |title=The Cambridge Companion to Caribbean Music |date=4 August 2022 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-38641-8 |page=27 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gH2KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |language=en |chapter=Race and Transculturation: Cuban Son}}</ref> Since these recordings were mainly sold in Cuba, they did not have any cultural impact in the US.
Spearheaded by the iconic ''conguero'' [[Chano Pozo]], the late 1940s saw an exodus of Afro-Cuban percussionists from Cuba to the United States. Among the leading ''bongoseros'' of Cuban origin in the United States were [[Armando Peraza]], [[Chino Pozo]] (unrelated to Chano) and [[Rogelio Darias]], who had a long career in [[Las Vegas]] and was known as the King of the Bongo.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbDmzGWpIYwC |title=Congressional Record Index, Volume 156, A-K, L-Z, Part 10 |date=February 4, 2010 |publisher=US Congress |pages=1248–1249 |chapter=Remembering Rogelio Darias}}</ref> Many others, however, would become primarily conga players, such as [[Mongo Santamaría]], [[Sabu Martinez|Sabú Martínez]] and [[Cándido Camero]].▼
Things changed one Saturday afternoon in April 1930, when the Havana Casino Orchestra directed by [[Don Azpiazú]] debuted their live show at the [[Palace Theatre (New York City)|Palace Theatre]] in New York. Featuring José "Chiquito" Socarrás on bongos, Don Azpiazú's successful performances and recordings of "[[El manisero]]" gave rise to a dance craze known as "[[rhumba]]" (in reality based on Cuban son) which led to the widespread use of the bongo among Latin bands in New York.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Figueroa |first1=Frank M. |title=Encyclopedia of Latin American Music in New York |date=1994 |publisher=Pillar Publications |isbn=978-0-9643201-0-9 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjcUAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> In the early 1930s, Cuban orchestras proliferated in New York, featuring the bongo as key percussion instrument, including those directed by Antonio Machín, Alberto Socarrás, Pedro Vía, Antobal, Enrique Bryon, etc. However, apart from Chiquito Socarrás, who was also a singer, there were no ''bongoseros'' of renown and the instrument did not yet permeate American music styles.
The Latin music scene of New York, and the US in general, was primarily constituted by Puerto Ricans, and many influential ''bongoseros'' were Puerto Ricans who learned from Cubans. An early example is Rafael "Congo" Castro, who arrived in New York in 1924 and had a long career as a ''bongosero'' in Chicago until the 1980s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Flores |first1=Carlos |date=1996 |title=Rafael "Congo" Castro: One of the Last Performers of his Generation |work=Kalinda! |issue=Spring 1996 |url=https://www.colum.edu/cbmr/PDF_folder/Kalinda1996spring.pdf}}</ref> In New York, many Puerto Rican ''bongoseros'' would go on to join the pioneering [[Afro-Cuban jazz]] ensembles of the time such as [[Machito]] and his Afro-Cubans, whose singles "Tangá" and "Mango mangüé"—considered the first examples of the genre—featured [[José Mangual Sr.|José Mangual Sr. "Buyú"]] on bongos. [[José Mangual Sr.|Mangual's]] prolific career was continued by his sons [[José Mangual Jr]]. and Luis Mangual, who played in a variety of [[Salsa (music)|salsa]] groups in the 1970s. The two biggest Latin orchestras of the 1950s in New York, led by [[Tito Puente]] and [[Tito Rodríguez]], were home to two generations of ''bongoseros'' represented by Johnny "La Vaca" Rodríguez and his son [[Johnny "Dandy" Rodríguez]], of Puerto Rican ancestry.<ref name="Conzo">{{cite book |last1=Conzo |first1=Joe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QY_ygAACAAJ |title=Mambo Diablo: My Journey With Tito Puente |last2=Pérez |first2=David A. |date=2010 |publisher=Authorhouse |isbn=9781617130298 |location=Bloomington, IN |page=218}}</ref>▼
▲Spearheaded by the iconic ''conguero'' [[Chano Pozo]], the late 1940s saw an exodus of Afro-Cuban percussionists from Cuba to the United States. Among the leading ''bongoseros'' of Cuban origin in the United States were [[Armando Peraza]], [[Chino Pozo]] (unrelated to Chano) and [[Rogelio Darias]], who had a long career in [[Las Vegas]] and was known as the King of the Bongo.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbDmzGWpIYwC |title=Congressional Record Index, Volume 156, A-K, L-Z, Part 10 |date=February 4, 2010 |publisher=US Congress |pages=1248–1249 |chapter=Remembering Rogelio Darias}}</ref> Many others, however, would become primarily conga players, such as [[Mongo Santamaría]], [[Sabu Martinez|Sabú Martínez]] and [[Cándido Camero]].
Other Puerto Rican musicians who made a name for themselves on the bongos were Richie Bastar of [[El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico]], Ralph Marzán of [[Johnny Pacheco]]'s charanga, "Little" Ray Romero, [[Frank Colón]] and [[Roberto Roena]]. On the other hand, American master ''bongoseros'' include [[Jack Costanzo]] and [[Willie Bobo]], the latter more active on [[timbales]]. Other ''bongoseros'' who had more impact as ''timbaleros'' were [[Manny Oquendo]], [[Orestes Vilató]] and Nicky Marrero. American novelty rock acts such as [[Preston Epps]] and [[Michael Viner]]'s [[Incredible Bongo Band]] capitalized on the popularity of the instrument as well as its "exotic" and rhythmic qualities.▼
▲The Latin music scene of New York, and the US in general, was primarily constituted by Puerto Ricans, and many influential ''bongoseros'' were Puerto Ricans who learned from Cubans. An early example is Rafael "Congo" Castro, who arrived in New York in 1924 and had a long career as a ''bongosero'' in Chicago until the 1980s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Flores |first1=Carlos |date=1996 |title=Rafael "Congo" Castro: One of the Last Performers of his Generation |work=Kalinda! |issue=Spring 1996 |url=https://www.colum.edu/cbmr/PDF_folder/Kalinda1996spring.pdf}}</ref> In New York, many Puerto Rican ''bongoseros'' would go on to join the pioneering [[Afro-Cuban jazz]] ensembles of the time such as [[Machito]] and his Afro-Cubans, whose singles "Tangá" and "Mango mangüé"—considered the first examples of the genre—featured [[José Mangual Sr.|José Mangual Sr. "Buyú"]] on bongos. [[José Mangual Sr.|Mangual's]] prolific career was continued by his sons [[José Mangual Jr]]. and Luis Mangual, who played in a variety of [[Salsa (music)|salsa]] groups in the 1970s. The two biggest Latin orchestras of the 1950s in New York, led by [[Tito Puente]] and [[Tito Rodríguez]], were home to two generations of ''bongoseros'' represented by Johnny "La Vaca" Rodríguez and his son [[Johnny "Dandy" Rodríguez]], of Puerto Rican ancestry.<ref name="Conzo">{{cite book |last1=Conzo |first1=Joe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QY_ygAACAAJ |title=Mambo Diablo: My Journey With Tito Puente |last2=Pérez |first2=David A. |date=2010 |publisher=Authorhouse |isbn=9781617130298 |location=Bloomington, IN |page=218}}</ref>
▲== Technique ==
▲[[File:Grupo Changüí de Guantánamo.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Grupo Changüí de Guantánamo in 1962. The ''bongosero'' (left) is playing ''bongó de monte'', which is much taller than the standard ''bongó''.]]
▲Bongo drums produce relatively [[Pitch (music)|high-pitched]] sounds compared to conga drums, and should be held behind the [[knee]]s with the larger drum on the right when [[right-handed]]. It is most often played by hand and is especially associated in Cuban music with a steady pattern or [[ostinato]] of eighth-notes known as the ''martillo'' (hammer).{{sfn|Fernandez|2006|p=22–41}} They are traditionally played by striking the edge of the drumheads with the fingers and palms. The [[glissando]] used with ''bongó de monte'' is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva, or sweat before rubbing it across the head.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Salloum |first1=Trevor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvhcjwEACAAJ |title=The Bongo Book |date=2015 |publisher=Mel Bay |isbn=9780786690404 |language=en}}</ref>
▲When playing son cubano and other popular genres, the ''macho'' is on the left and the ''hembra'' on the right. In changüí, the ''bongó de monte'' is positioned the opposite way.<ref name="Lapidus" /> Playing patterns are also different in changüí, where the ''bongó'' does not follow a steady beat. Instead, it usually marks [[Off-beat (music)|offbeats]] and beat four while improvising.<ref name="Lapidus" /> Thus, the playing technique in changüí resembles that of the congas (moreover, their pitch is often lower than both bongos and congas).<ref name="Lapidus" /> This reflects it origin, since the ''bongó del monte'' evolved from pairs of ''bokús'', a larger drum from eastern Cuba similar to the conga.<ref name="Lapidus" />
▲Other Puerto Rican musicians who made a name for themselves on the bongos were Richie Bastar of [[El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico]], Ralph Marzán of [[Johnny Pacheco]]'s charanga, "Little" Ray Romero, [[Frank Colón]] and [[Roberto Roena]]. On the other hand, American master ''bongoseros'' include [[Jack Costanzo]] and [[Willie Bobo]] (of Puerto Rican origin), the latter more active on [[timbales]]. Other ''bongoseros'' who had more impact as ''timbaleros'' were [[Manny Oquendo]], [[Orestes Vilató]] and Nicky Marrero. American novelty rock acts such as [[Preston Epps]] and [[Michael Viner]]'s [[Incredible Bongo Band]] capitalized on the popularity of the instrument as well as its
▲Bongos can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras and bands. In [[Western classical music|classical music]] performances, bongos are usually struck with [[Percussion mallet|mallets]] or [[Drum stick|drumsticks]]. Examples of pieces featuring bongos include ''[[Ionisation (Varèse)|Ionisation]]'' by Varèse (1931), ''[[Le Marteau sans maître]]'' by Boulez (1955) and ''[[In seinem Garten liebt Don Perlimplin Belisa]]'' by Fortner (1962).{{sfn|Beck|2007|p=13}}
== Notes ==
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=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Beck |first1=John H. |title=Encyclopedia of Percussion |
* {{Cite book |last=Fernandez|first= Raul A. |title=From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz |publisher=
* {{cite book |last1=Ortiz |first1=Fernando |title=Los instrumentos de la música afrocubana Vol. 3 |date=1953 |publisher=Dirección de Cultura del Ministerio de Educación |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vIbkAAAAMAAJ |language=es}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rodríguez |first1=Victoria Eli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L7cmAQAAIAAJ |title=Instrumentos de la música folclórico-popular de Cuba |date=1997 |publisher=Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de la Música Cubana |isbn=9789590602795 |location=Havana, Cuba |language=es}}
{{refend}}
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