God in Hinduism: Difference between revisions

[[Hindus]] following [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita Vedānta]] consider ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'', the individual soul within every living being, to be the same as Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi,<ref>Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999), Hindu Spirituality, GB Press, {{ISBN|978-8876528187}}, page 129</ref>{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=80-81, 210 with footnotes}}<ref>Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120818927}}, pages 16–19</ref> or, alternatively, identical to the eternal and formless [[Absolute (philosophy)|metaphysical Absolute]] called ''[[Brahman]]''.{{refn|<ref name="Leeming 2014">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Leeming |first=David A. |author-link=David Adams Leeming |year=2014 |title=Brahman |editor-last=Leeming |editor-first=David A. |editor-link=David Adams Leeming |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion |page=197 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Springer Verlag]] |location=[[Boston]] |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9052 |isbn=978-1-4614-6087-9 |quote=For [[Hindus]], especially those in the [[Advaita Vedanta]] tradition, [[Brahman]] is the undifferentiated reality underlying all existence. Brahman is the eternal first cause present everywhere and nowhere, beyond time and space, the indefinable [[Absolute (philosophy)|Absolute]]. The gods are incarnations of Brahman. It can be said that everything that is Brahman. And it can be argued that Brahman is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic concept]] or at least a [[Monism|monistic]] one, since all gods – presumably of any tradition – are manifestations of Brahman, real only because Brahman exists.}}</ref><ref name="Halligan 2014">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Halligan |first=Fredrica R. |year=2014 |title=Atman |editor-last=Leeming |editor-first=David A. |editor-link=David Adams Leeming |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion |pages=134–135 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Springer Verlag]] |location=[[Boston]] |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_54 |isbn=978-1-4614-6087-9}}</ref><ref name="BEH2">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Ram-Prasad |author-first=Chakravarthi |author-link=Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad |year=2018 |origyear=2010 |title=Brahman |editor1-last=Basu |editor1-first=Helene |editor2-last=Jacobsen |editor2-first=Knut A. |editor2-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |editor3-last=Malinar |editor3-first=Angelika |editor4-last=Narayanan |editor4-first=Vasudha |editor4-link=Vasudha Narayanan |encyclopedia=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=2 |doi=10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_2050070 |isbn=978-90-04-17893-9 |issn=2212-5019}}</ref><ref>William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323084508/http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |date=23 March 2015 }}, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University</ref><ref>U Murthy (1979), Samskara, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195610796}}, page 150</ref><ref name="Dissanayake 1993">{{cite book |author-last=Dissanayake |author-first=Wimal |year=1993 |chapter=The Body in Indian Theory and Practice |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBYz5jgA4-8C&pg=PA39 |editor1-last=Kasulis |editor1-first=Thomas P. |editor2-last=Ames |editor2-first=Roger T. |editor3-last=Dissanayake |editor3-first=Wimal |title=Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice |location=[[Albany, New York]] |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |series=SUNY Series: The Body in Culture, History, and Religion |page=39 |isbn=0-7914-1079-X |oclc=24174772 |quote=The [[Upanishads]] form the foundations of [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophical thought]], and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] and [[Brahman]], or the inner self and the cosmic self. [...] If we adhere to the thought that the Brahman is the cosmic principle governing the universe and Atman as its physical correlate, the essence of Upanishadic thought can be succinctly stated in the formula Brahman = Atman.}}</ref>}} Such a [[Advaita Vedanta|philosophical system of ''Advaita'' or non-dualism]] as it developed in the [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]], especially as set out in the [[Upanishads]], was popularized by the Indian philosopher, Vedic scholar, teacher, and mystic [[Adi Shankara|Ādi Śaṅkara]] in the 8th century CE, and has been vastly influential on Hinduism.{{sfn|Indich|2000|page=vii}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=240-243}}{{sfn|Brannigan|2009|page=19, Quote: "''Advaita Vedanta'' is the most influential philosophical system in Hindu thought."}} Therefore, Advaitins believe that ''[[Brahman]]'' is the sole [[Para Brahman|Supreme Being]] (''Para Brahman'') and [[Monism|Ultimate Reality]] that exists beyond the (mis)perceived reality of a world of multiple objects and transitory persons.{{refn|<ref name="Leeming 2014"/><ref name="Halligan 2014"/><ref name="BEH2"/><ref name="Dissanayake 1993"/>}}

 

 

== Henotheism, kathenotheism, and equitheism ==

== Monotheism ==

Monotheism is the belief in a single creator God and the lack of belief in any other Creator.<ref>Bruce Trigger (2003), Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521822459}}, pages 473-474</ref><ref>Charles Taliaferro and Elsa J. Marty (2010), A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion, Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1441111975}}, pages 98-99</ref> Hinduism is not a monolithic faith and different sects may or may not posit or require such a belief. Religion is considered a personal belief in Hinduism and followers are free to choose the different interpretations within the framework of ''karma'' and ''samsara''. Many forms of Hinduism believe in a type of monotheistic God, such as [[Krishnaism]] with polymorphic theism, some schools of [[Vedanta]], and [[Arya Samaj]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Eric Ackroyd|title=Divinity in Things: Religion Without Myth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv8o5lGxtgAC&pg=PA78 |year=2009|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-84519-333-1 |pages=78 }}, Quote: "The jealous God who says, "Thou shalt have no other gods but me" belongs to the Jewish-Christian-Muslim tradition, but not to the Hindu tradition, which tolerates all gods but is not a monotheism, monism, yes, but not monotheism."</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Frank Whaling|title=Understanding Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WudXAAAAYAAJ |year=2010|publisher=Dunedin Academic Press |isbn=978-1-903765-36-4 |pages=19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Hiroshi Ōbayashi|title=Death and afterlife: perspectives of world religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ub8oAAAAYAAJ |year=1992|publisher=Praeger|isbn=978-0-275-94104-8 |pages=145 }}</ref>

 

=== Madhvacharya's monotheistic God ===

 

Madhvacharya was misperceived and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries and Hindu writers during the colonial era scholarship.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=19-25}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}} The similarities in the primacy of one God, dualism and distinction between man and God, devotion to God, the son of God as the intermediary, predestination, the role of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities in the legends of miracles in Christianity and Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these stories.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=19-25}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}} Among Christian writers, G. A. Grierson creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine of that faith".{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|p=20}} Among Hindu writers, according to Sarma, S. C. Vasu creatively translated Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=22-24}}

 

== Brahman==

{{Main|Brahman|Para Brahman}}

 

In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Ultimate Reality]] in the [[universe]].<ref name="james122">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0823931798|volume=1|pages=122}}</ref><ref name=ptraju>P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}} In major schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], it is the material, efficient, formal and final [[Four causes|cause]] of all that exists.<ref name=ptraju/><ref>Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, {{ISBN|978-9042015104}}, pages 43–44</ref><ref name=fxclooney>For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), ''Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199738724}}, pages 51–58, 111–115;<br />For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), ''Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara'', Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35</ref> It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.<ref name=james122/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53–55}}<ref name="jeffreybrodd">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/worldreligions2000jeff|url-access=registration|title=World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery|last=Brodd|first=Jeffrey|publisher=Saint Mary's Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0884899976|edition=3rd|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldreligions2000jeff/page/43 43]–47}}</ref> Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.<ref name=james122/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=50–53}}

Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self),<ref name=sphilips/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–53}} [[Personal god|personal]],{{refn|group=note|[[Saguna Brahman]], with qualities}} [[Absolute (philosophy)|impersonal]]{{refn|group=note|[[Nirguna Brahman]], without qualities}} or [[Para Brahman]],{{refn|group=note|Supreme}} or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.<ref>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), ''A Survey of Hinduism'', Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791470824}}, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All</ref> In [[Dualistic cosmology|dualistic]] schools of Hinduism such as the theistic [[Dvaita Vedanta]], Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework of [[God]] in major world religions.<ref name=fxclooney/><ref name=mmyers>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124–127</ref><ref>Thomas Padiyath (2014), ''The Metaphysics of Becoming'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110342550}}, pages 155–157</ref> In [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dual]] schools of Hinduism such as the [[monism|monist]] [[Advaita Vedanta]], Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.<ref name=jeffreybrodd/><ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86</ref><ref>John E. Welshons (2009), ''One Soul, One Love, One Heart'', New World Library, {{ISBN|978-1577315889}}, pages 17–18</ref>

 

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