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{{Short description|Prussian national daily newspaper (1848-1939)}}
[[File:Kreuzzeitung Titel ab 1848.jpg|thumb]]
The '''''Kreuzzeitung''''' was a national daily newspaper published between 1848 and 1939 in the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] and then during the [[German Empire]], the [[Weimar Republic]] and into the first part of the [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]. The paper was a voice of the conservative upper class, although it was never associated with any political party and never had more than 10,000 subscribers. Its target readership was the nobility, military officers, high-ranking officials, industrialists and diplomats. Because its readers were among the elite, the ''Kreuzzeitung'' was often quoted and at times very influential. It had connections to officials in the highest levels of government and business and was especially known for its foreign reporting.
Its original name was officially the
The [[National Socialists]] took over the ''Kreuzzeitung'' on 29 August 1937, and the last issue was printed on 31 January 1939.
== Origin ==▼
In the Kingdom of Prussia, the ''Allgemeine Preußische Staatszeitung'' (''General Prussian State Newspaper'') was published from 1819 as an official newspaper for announcements. It later developed into the ''Deutsche Reichsanzeiger'' (''German Imperial Gazette'') and today's ''Bundesanzeiger'' (''Federal Gazette''). There was no other newspaper that represented the particular interests of the Prussian upper class. As a reaction to the [[German revolutions of 1848–1849|March Revolution of 1848]], the [[Bundestag]] repealed the [[Carlsbad Decrees]] on April 2, 1848. The middle class in particular, but also radical left-wing forces, took advantage of the newly won freedom of the press and founded numerous newspapers, among them the bourgeois-liberal ''National-Zeitung'' and the ''[[Neue Rheinische Zeitung]]'' (''New Rhenish Newspaper'') with radical-communist content.▼
[[File:Gerlach 001.jpg|thumb|257x257px|Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach (here around 1845) is considered to be the actual founding father of the Kreuzzeitung]]▼
Monarchical-conservative circles sped up their push to found their own newspaper to represent the opposite side; this became the Kreuzzeitung. Originally it was to be called ''Das Eiserne Kreuz'' (''The Iron Cross''), but some of the founders found the name too militaristic. They agreed on the more noncommittal ''Neue Preußische Zeitung'' with an image of the Iron Cross in the logo. The newspaper was however called the Kreuzzeitung by its authors, creators and readers from the first issue.<ref name=":0" /> The main founders, almost all of them belonging to the [[camarilla]] around the Prussian king [[Frederick William IV of Prussia|Frederick William IV]]<ref>Otto-Ernst Schüddekopf: ''Die deutsche Innenpolitik im letzten Jahrhundert und der konservative Gedanke. Die Zusammenhänge zwischen Außenpolitik, innerer Staatsführung und Parteiengeschichte, dargestellt an der Geschichte der Konservativen Partei von 1807 bis 1918,'' Bände 1807–1918 [German Domestic Politics in the Last Century and Conservative Thought. The Interrelationships between Foreign Policy, Domestic Governance and Party History, Illustrated by the History of the Conservative Party from 1807 to 1918, Volumes 1807-1918]. Verlag Albert Limbach, 1951, p. 30.</ref> were:▼
▲== Origin ==
▲In the Kingdom of Prussia, the
▲[[File:
▲Monarchical-conservative circles sped up their push to found their own newspaper to represent the opposite side; this became the ''Kreuzzeitung''. Originally it was to be called
* [[Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach]]
* [[Ludwig Friedrich Leopold von Gerlach|Leopold von Gerlach]]
Line 17 ⟶ 19:
* [[Moritz August von Bethmann-Hollweg]]
* [[Otto von Bismarck]]
* Carl von Voß-
The launch of the newspaper and the founding of the publishing house were carried out with military precision. The intent was for the paper to be characterized by good networking with the highest state institutions.<ref>Stephan Zick: ''Mythos „Bismarcks Sozialpolitik“: Akteure und Interessen der Sozialgesetzgebung im Deutschen Kaiserreich'' [Myth of "Bismarck's Social Policy": Actors and Interests of Social Legislation in the German Empire]''.'' Dissertation. Norderstedt 2003, p. 47.</ref> Berlin was chosen both for the headquarters of the New Prussian Newspaper, Inc. and as the location for its printing. The calculated starting capital of 20,000 [[
In connection to the new paper, the Prussian Conservative Party was called the
== Development
[[File:F.J.Stahl.jpg|thumb|left|253x253px|Friedrich Julius Stahl (here around 1840) had direct access to the
The ''Kreuzzeitung'' was controversial from the beginning, even among the various groups of conservatives. Particularly at the beginning of the post-1848 reactionary era, part of the upper nobility "categorically rejected such democratic means in the struggle to form opinions”.<ref>Dagmar Bussiek: ''Mit Gott für König und Vaterland Die Neue Preußische Zeitung (Kreuzzeitung) 1848–1892'' [With God for King and Fatherland! The New Prussian Newspaper (Cross Newspaper) 1848-1892]. LIT Verlag, Münster 2002, p. 18.
The editorial staff enjoyed a relatively high degree of independence, although the
That this independence had distinct limits was clearly felt by the first editor-in-chief. After the newspaper continuously and openly criticized both the dictatorship of [[Napoleon III]] and him as a person, Bismarck called on the paper to exercise restraint. The editors ignored the advice. As a consequence, in April 1852 the ''Kreuzzeitung'' was banned in France, and several editions were confiscated in Berlin. The next strains followed when the editorial board openly spoke out against the repeal of the Basic Rights of the German People as drafted by the [[Frankfurt Parliament]] and thus against the [[Lesser Germany]] solution. A wide variety of power interests and spheres of influence clashed here.<ref name=":1" />
The paper's position repeatedly met with opposition from [[Otto Theodor von Manteuffel]], then the
Under Beutner's leadership too the paper was not immune to impoundments. Entire editions that had already been printed were repeatedly confiscated. The reason for this was the differing views within the Conservative Party, which ultimately led to several splits from 1857 onward. In addition, the relationship between the ''Kreuzzeitung'' and Bismarck worsened.
Although the ''Kreuzzeitung'' predominantly represented the views of the arch-conservatives, i.e. the representatives of the king and later the emperor, it also always covered the interests of the liberal-conservative, Christian-conservative and social-conservative forces. In doing so, the paper presented facts or actions primarily as reports or news items, that is, without an assessment by the author. But the very fact that it published different positions without commenting on them
[[File:Theodor Fontane.png|thumb|235x235px|Theodor Fontane worked for the ''Kreuzzeitung'' for 19 years]]
The Kreuzzeitung received most of its information from younger diplomats.<ref>Ursula E. Koch: ''Berliner Presse und europäisches Geschehen 1871'' [The Berlin Press and European Events 1871]''.'' Colloquium Verlag, 1978, p. 76.</ref> The first foreign correspondents it was able to attract were [[Johann Georg Ludwig Hesekiel|George Hesekiel]] in Paris and, from 1851, [[Theodor Fontane]] in London. Later the Kreuzzeitung had permanent staff in all European capitals. Until then, reports from foreign newspapers were sometimes passed off as the paper's own work. What today violates copyright law was a widespread practice at the time, and not only among German newspaper writers. Even the [[Times of london|Times of London]] translated complete articles from the Kreuzzeitung, unhesitatingly citing their "own Berlin correspondent" as the source.<ref>Heide Streiter-Buscher: ''Theodor Fontane. Unechte Korrespondenzen'' [Theodor Fontane. Spurious Correspondences]''.'' Walter de Gruyter, 1996, p. 36</ref>▼
▲The ''Kreuzzeitung'' received most of its information from younger diplomats.<ref>Ursula E. Koch: ''Berliner Presse und europäisches Geschehen 1871'' [The Berlin Press and European Events 1871]''.'' Colloquium Verlag, 1978, p. 76.</ref> The first foreign correspondents it was able to attract were [[Johann Georg Ludwig Hesekiel|George Hesekiel]] in Paris and, from 1851, [[Theodor Fontane]] in London. Later the ''Kreuzzeitung'' had permanent staff in all European capitals. Until then, reports from foreign newspapers were sometimes passed off as the paper's own work. What today violates copyright law was a widespread practice at the time, and not only among German newspaper writers. Even the [[Times of london|Times of London]] translated complete articles from the ''Kreuzzeitung'', unhesitatingly citing their "own Berlin correspondent" as the source.<ref>Heide Streiter-Buscher: ''Theodor Fontane. Unechte Korrespondenzen'' [Theodor Fontane. Spurious Correspondences]''.'' Walter de Gruyter, 1996, p. 36</ref>
Fontane worked in London not just for the Neue Preußische Zeitung. He sometimes reported directly to the German ambassador [[Albrecht von Bernstorff]] and released press reports in support of Prussian foreign policy to English and German newspapers.<ref>Edgar Bauer: ''Konfidentenberichte über die europäische Emigration in London 1852–1861'' [Reports of Confidential Informers about European Emigration in London]. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1989, p. 271.</ref> At the same time he traveled to [[Copenhagen]] and wrote regular articles for the Kreuzzeitung about the [[Second Schleswig War|German-Danish War]]. In his biography Fontane maintained that he "found no [[Byzantinism]] or cowardly hypocrisy whatsoever" at the Kreuzzeitung and that Friedrich Julius Stahl's motto applied in the editorial office: "Gentlemen, let us not forget that even the most conservative paper is still more paper than conservative."<ref>Eckhard Heftrich: T''heodor Fontane und Thomas Mann. Vorträge des Internationalen Kolloquiums in Lübeck 1997'' [Theodor Fontane and Tomas Mann. Lectures of the International Colloquium in Lübeck 1997]. Klostermann Vittorio GmbH, 1998, p. 60.</ref> What was meant by this was that the presentation of various opinions, which should on principle be passed on without any judgment by the author, was part of a newspaper's sales success. In 1870 Fontane moved to the [[Vossische Zeitung]] as a theater critic.▼
▲Fontane worked in London not just for the {{Lang|de|Neue Preußische Zeitung}}. He sometimes reported directly to the German ambassador [[Albrecht von Bernstorff (diplomat, born 1809)|Albrecht von Bernstorff]] and released press reports in support of Prussian foreign policy to English and German newspapers.<ref>Edgar Bauer: ''Konfidentenberichte über die europäische Emigration in London 1852–1861'' [Reports of Confidential Informers about European Emigration in London]. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1989, p. 271.</ref> At the same time he traveled to
The newspaper was printed by the Heinicke printing house in Berlin from 1852 to 1908. The publisher, Ferdinand Heinicke, also assumed responsibility for the content of the paper as the so-called ‘sitting editor’ who was the sole person liable in legal disputes and lawsuits. This protected the Kreuzzeitung’s editors from such entanglements.<ref>Ursula E. Koch: ''Berliner Presse und europäisches Geschehen 1871'' [The Berlin Press and European events 1871]. Colloquium Verlag, 1978, p. 72.</ref>▼
▲The newspaper was printed by the Heinicke printing house in Berlin from 1852 to 1908. The publisher, Ferdinand Heinicke, also assumed responsibility for the content of the paper as the so-called ‘sitting editor’ who was the sole person liable in legal disputes and lawsuits.
== Trends During the Imperial Period ==▼
In 1861 the circulation was 7,100 and increased to around 9,500 by 1874. Despite its relatively small circulation, it stood at the intersection of politics and journalism and was at the height of its power. Almost all newspapers in Germany and abroad regularly used introductory sentences such as "According to the Kreuzzeitung ...", "Well-informed Kreuzzeitung sources have learned ...", "As the Kreuzzeitung reports ...", etc. After 1868 Bismarck used the notorious Reptile Fund – money diverted from elsewhere in the budget for political purposes or to pay bribes – in order to influence the press and implement his policies. Evidence shows that the Neue Preußische Zeitung did not receive any funds from these "black coffers". The editors even dared to question such propaganda methods in two articles.<ref>Karl Ernst Jarcke, George P. Phillips, Guido Görres, Josef Edmund Jörg, Georg Maria von Jochner: ''Historisch-politische Blätter für das katholische Deutschland'' [Historical-political Newspapers for Catholic Germany]''.'' Vol. 75. Literarisch-artistische Anstalt, München 1875, p. 471.</ref> As an economically self-supporting joint-stock company, the Kreuzzeitung was in principle independent of the crown and the government. Likewise, it was never a party newspaper or the mouthpiece of a particular party. Until its last issue in 1939, the paper had no party affiliation. <ref>Kurt Franke: ''Demokratie Lernen in Berlin: 1. Berliner Forum zur politischen Bildung 1989'' [Learning Democracy in Berlin. 1 Berlin Forum on Political Education]''.'' Springer-Verlag, 2013, p. 71 (Zeitungskundlicher Teil 15).</ref>Rather, the Kreuzzeitung represented the link between all conservative forces.<ref>Heide Streiter-Buscher: ''Theodor Fontane. Unechte Korrespondenzen'' [Theodor Fontane. Spurious Correspondences]''.'' Walter de Gruyter, 1996, p. 20.</ref>▼
After the [[Proclamation of the German Empire|foundation of the German Empire]] in 1871, the reputation of the newspaper changed permanently. The reasons for this were the so-called "Era Articles”, the "Hammerstein affair”, and above all the dissolution of the Prussian Conservative Party. This split into, among others, the [[Free Conservative Party]], [[German Progress Party]], [[National Liberal Party (Germany)|National Liberal Party]], [[Centre Party (Germany)|German Center Party]], [[Christian Social Party (Germany)|Christian Social Party]] and [[German Conservative Party]].▼
▲In 1861 the circulation was 7,100 and increased to around 9,500 by 1874. Despite its relatively small circulation, it stood at the intersection of politics and journalism and was at the height of its power. Almost all newspapers in Germany and abroad regularly used introductory sentences such as "According to the ''Kreuzzeitung'' ...", "Well-informed ''Kreuzzeitung'' sources have learned ...", "As the ''Kreuzzeitung'' reports ...", etc. After 1868 Bismarck used the notorious Reptile Fund – money diverted for political purposes from elsewhere in the budget
▲After the [[Proclamation of the German Empire|foundation of the German Empire]] in 1871, the reputation of the newspaper changed permanently. The reasons for this were the so-called "Era
=== The Era Articles ===▼
[[File:BismarckArbeitszimmer1886.jpg|thumb|210x210px|Otto von Bismarck (here in 1886) went from friend to foe of the Kreuzzeitung]]▼
▲[[File:BismarckArbeitszimmer1886.jpg|thumb|left|210x210px|Otto von Bismarck (here in 1886) went from friend to foe of the ''Kreuzzeitung''.]]
In the fall of 1872 Philipp von Nathusius-Ludom took over as editor-in-chief. He had no journalistic qualifications and strove passionately to make the paper populist - in today's parlance - and to stir up controversy. His efforts did not end well.
In June and July 1875 the journalist Franz Perrot, writing under a pseudonym, published a series of five articles in the ''Kreuzzeitung
The articles triggered a scandal. Perrot revealed that bankers, mediatized princes, and members of parliament were able to gain advantages on the stock exchange not just through the help of diplomatic channels. It came to light as well that a number of state officials participated in wild speculations and made use of their official or political influence by personally participating in and founding joint-stock companies. Bismarck had to respond to the accusations in court and before the [[Reichstag (German Empire)|Reichstag]]. For him the conflict with the ''Kreuzzeitung'' was "now out in the open, and the bridges are burnt".<ref>Ursula E. Koch: ''Berliner Presse und europäisches Geschehen 1871'' [The Berlin Press and European events 1871]''.'' Colloquium Verlag, 1978, p. 80.</ref> Bismarck called publicly for a boycott of the ''Kreuzzeitung''. The paper countered by publishing more than 100 names of declarants, nobles, members of parliament, and pastors who in letters to the newspaper expressed their approval of the publication of the research.
Nothing could be proven against the chancellor, but in fact he had hoped that his economic policy would lead to a split among the liberals. Moreover, his policies did indeed contribute to fluctuations in the stock market that had serious consequences.
It was never possible to find out who Perrot's source was. There was speculation as to whether [[William I, German Emperor|Wilhelm I]] had wanted to give his Reich
=== The Hammerstein
Benno von Niebelschütz became the editor-in-chief in 1876. With him, according to the emperor, the newspaper "not only lost all journalistic bite, but in part even its readability".<ref>Dagmar Bussiek: ''Mit Gott für König und Vaterland! Die Neue Preußische Zeitung (Kreuzzeitung) 1848–1892'' [With God for King and Fatherland! The New Prussian Newspaper (Cross Newspaper) 1848-1892]''.'' LIT Verlag, Münster 2002, p. 242.</ref> He was succeeded in 1884 by [[Wilhelm Joachim von Hammerstein|Wilhelm Joachim Baron von Hammerstein]]. Under his leadership, the paper treated the so-called [[Jewish question]] as a standalone topic. From today's perspective the ''Kreuzzeitung'' at times came close to being anti-Semitic. The term ‘anti-Semitic’ did not
Hammerstein worked closely with the court chaplain [[Adolf Stoecker]], with whom he maintained a personal friendship. Stoecker demanded, including in articles in the ''Kreuzzeitung'', an unconditional assimilation of the Jews through baptism and a limitation of the 1871 constitutional act giving them equal status. He also accused several individuals of abusing
[[File:Julius-Rodenberg.jpg|thumb|209x209px|One of the best-known Jewish journalists of the time was Julius Rodenberg (shown here around 1875), who wrote for the ''Kreuzzeitung'' from 1859 to 1896.]]
Jews were in fact an integral part of the German Empire.<ref>Shulamit Volkov: ''Jüdische Assimilation und jüdische Eigenart im Deutschen Kaiserreich'' [Jewish Assimilation and Jewish Distinctiveness in the German Empire]''.'' In: ''Geschichte und Gegenwart: Historische Zeitschrift für Sozialwissenschaft,'' Band 9 [History and Present: Historical Journal for Social Science, vol. 9]. Göttingen 1983, p. 132.</ref> The ''Kreuzzeitung'' had had Jewish writers working for it since its founding. By 1880 it employed 46 permanent correspondents who were Jewish and had several Jewish freelancers.<ref>Michael Fleischer: ''Kommen Sie, Cohn. Fontane und die Judenfrage'' [Come, Cohn. Fontane and the Jewish Question]''.'' Taschenbuch-Verlag, 1998, p. 46.</ref> Jewish deputies with large Jewish constituencies were represented in the conservative parties.<ref>Hans-Joachim Schoeps: ''Jüdische Anhänger der Konservativen Partei Preußens'' [Jewish Supporters in the Conservative Party of Prussia]''.'' In: ''Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte'' [Journal for Religious and Intellectual History]''.'' Vol. 24, No. 4 (1972), p. 337–346.</ref> The warning from the emperor had its effect. In 1890
The greatest damage to the respectability and credibility of the ''Kreuzzeitung'' was done by its editor-in-chief Hammerstein. He liked to portray himself as a "clean man" and always loudly promoted law and order but had relationships with women outside his marriage and lived in a grand style.
The scandal created enormous waves and was debated repeatedly in the Reichstag. The ''Kreuzzeitung's'' competition
In the wake of these events, the {{Lang|de|Neue Preußische Zeitung}} lost about 2,000 readers. Circulation fell steadily. Even Wilhelm II, who did not want to abandon the paper, could do nothing, although he had it publicly announced that "The Emperor reads the ''Kreuzzeitung'' now as before; it is in fact the only political newspaper he reads".<ref
=== Neutrality
The decline was not halted until Georg Foertsch took over as editor-in-chief in 1913.
The new editor-in-chief reorganized finances and subsumed the buildings and editorial offices that the newspaper had acquired in recent decades in Germany and abroad under a wholly owned subsidiary, ''Kreuzzeitung'' Real Estate Inc. He also raised the subscriber price to 9 marks (today about 55 euros)<ref>Compare Deutsche Währungsgeschichte Abschnitt Mark (1871–1923) [German Currency History Section Mark (1871-1923)].</ref>
[[File:Kreuz 1914 0708.gif|thumb|Speech by the Kaiser "To the German People!" on the front page of the morning edition of
One of
During the First World War not only did all political parties enter into the so-called [[Burgfriedenspolitik|Burgfrieden]] – the tabling of domestic political and economic disputes – but in principle all German newspapers did as well. This went so far that several conservative parties effectively ceased their activities. During this period the ''Kreuzzeitung'' provided very well-researched commentaries which are still one of the most important sources for historians on military as well as day-to-day political events of World War I.<ref>Andreas Leipold: ''Die Bewertung Kaiser Wilhelms II'' [The Assessment of Emperor Wilhelm II]''.'' GRIN Verlag, 2008, p. 2.</ref><ref>Friedhelm Boll and others. (Publisher): ''Archiv für Sozialgeschichte.'' Band 45 [Archive for Social History Vol. 45]. Verlag für Literatur und Zeitgeschehen, 2005, p. 561.</ref>
On 9 November 1918, the ''Kreuzzeitung'' ran the headline "The Emperor Abdicates!":<blockquote>"We lack the words to express what moves us in this hour. Under the force of events, the thirty-year reign of our Emperor, who always wanted the best for his people, has come to an end. The heart of every monarchist is convulsed at this event."</blockquote>Deep grief, apathy, escapism and hopelessness, as well as fears of what was to come that reached the point of panic reactions, characterized the prevailing mood of the old elites after the collapse of the empire.<ref>einz Reif: ''Entwicklungslinien und Wendepunkte im 20. Jahrhundert'' [Lines of Development and Turning Points in the 20th Century]''.'' Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2001, p. 103.</ref> For the monarchist ''Kreuzzeitung'', a world had irrevocably collapsed.▼
▲Deep grief, apathy, escapism and hopelessness, as well as fears of what was to come that reached the point of panic reactions, characterized the prevailing mood of the old elites after the collapse of the empire.<ref>einz Reif: ''Entwicklungslinien und Wendepunkte im 20. Jahrhundert'' [Lines of Development and Turning Points in the 20th Century]''.'' Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2001, p. 103.</ref> For the monarchist Kreuzzeitung, a world had irrevocably collapsed.
== Situation in the Weimar Republic ==
{{Conservatism in Germany|Media}}
Writers have interpreted the attitude of the editors and thus the basic political direction of the ''Kreuzzeitung'' differently, especially during the [[Weimar Republic]]. Depending on the
Politically, most of the ''Kreuzzeitung's'' staff did not feel at home anywhere after the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919|November Revolution]]. Few of its editors turned their backs on the paper; almost all were monarchists. They received some of the highest wages in the industry, and above all they were paid on time. The ''Kreuzzeitung'' had no party affiliation, so correspondents had a relatively wide latitude. As before, most of the newspaper consisted of scrupulously researched foreign news reported without commentary. Travel expenses were reimbursed, as were "cover invoices" for expenses such as undeclared payments or bribes. Through the ''Kreuzzeitung,'' employees gained access to the highest circles in Germany and abroad. Because of its connections to politics and business, the ''Kreuzzeitung'' continued to be regarded among journalists as a training ground. The weekly [[Die Weltbühne|''Weltbühne'']], for which the opposition ''Kreuzzeitung'' embodied the old German ruling class through and through, acknowledged the "old royalist ''Kreuzzeitung’s'' useful foreign policy information" and gladly employed journalists such as Lothar Persius who had learned their trade at the {{Lang|de|Neue Preußische Zeitung}}.<ref>Werner Bergengruen: ''Schriftstellerexistenz in der Diktatur'' [Writer’s Lives Under Dictatorship]''.''
Jewish editors continued to work at the ''Kreuzzeitung''. The paper consciously set itself apart from the "ruckus anti-Semitism" of the [[Alfred Hugenberg|Hugenberg]] press. While the paper cannot be described as in principle pro-Jewish, neither was it anti-Semitic.<ref
The repositioning of some conservative parties left the editors stunned. The [[Centre Party (Germany)|
On 17 November
=== Political
The paper in particular bolstered the conservative [[Bavarian People's Party]] (BVP), which split from the
The ''Kreuzzeitung
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-06206, Graf Kuno von Westarp.jpg|thumb|left|267x267px|Count von Westarp (pictured here in the center in July 1928) was a member of the
The ''Kreuzzeitung'' also supported the paramilitary [[Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten|Stahlhelm]], but only conditionally in the person of [[Theodor Duesterberg]], whom the National Socialists had discredited because of his "not purely Aryan origin".<ref>Heinrich Brüning: ''Memoiren 1918–1934'' [Memoirs 1918-1934]''.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1970, p. 467.</ref> During Duesterberg's candidacy in the [[1932 German presidential election]]
The Stahlhelm had over 500,000 members and the DNVP almost one million. Both groups had their own party newspapers. Their members were never part of the target group of the ''Kreuzzeitung'', whose circulation remained constant at 7,200 until 1932. At no time did the paper come under the ownership of the Stahlhelm or the DNVP. [[Franz Seldte]], the national leader of the Stahlhelm, owned Frundsberg Publishers in Berlin, through which he distributed several publications for the Stahlhelm. [[Alfred Hugenberg]] owned more than 1,600 German newspapers, so that he too did not at any time need the ''Kreuzzeitung'' as a megaphone or party newspaper, although he would gladly have taken it over for reasons of prestige.<ref>Dankwart Guratzsch: ''Macht durch Organisation. Die Grundlegung des Hugenbergschen Presseimperiums'' [Power through Organization. The Foundation of Hugenberg's Press Empire]''.'' Bertelsmann, 1974, p. 27 ff.</ref> The ''Kreuzzeitung's'' target group always remained the conservative upper class. This included the members of the German Gentlemen's Club. All of the ''Kreuzzeitung's'' corporate board belonged to it, as did Georg Foertsch as editor-in-chief. Many of the Gentlemen's
Reich President [[Paul von Hindenburg]], who was seen as the guarantor of the monarchy and the sole figure with the stature to restore it, received unlimited support from the ''Kreuzzeitung''. Hindenburg also occasionally leaked internal information to the paper and wrote short articles for it himself, which he had published via Kuno von Westarp.<ref>Larry Eugene Jones, Wolfram Pyta: ''Ich bin der letzte Preusse: der politische Lebensweg des konservativen Politikers Kuno Graf von Westarp'' [I am the Last Prussian: the Political Life of the Conservative Politician Kuno Graf von Westarp]''.'' Böhlau Verlag, 2006, p. 182.</ref> He had a legendary interview with the liberal ''[[Berliner Tageblatt]]'' which came about at the request of
For the ''Kreuzzeitung,'' Hindenburg remained to the last the bearer of hope. He showed little inclination to confer the chancellorship on Hitler until shortly before 30 January
=== Economic
During the hyperinflation of 1922/23, the ''Kreuzzeitung'' fell into existential difficulties financially. Its reserves continuously fell and it lost all of its real estate. Foertsch managed to keep the business going by means of private donations from members of the Gentlemen's Club. In order to prevent a takeover by the Hugenberg Group, he agreed in September 1926 to form an association with Helmut Rauschenbusch, who was also a member of the Gentlemen's Club and publisher of the ''Deutsche Tageszeitung'' (''German Daily Newspaper''). They founded the Berlin Central Printers Ltd. which printed the ''Kreuzzeitung'' and the ''Deutsche Tageszeitung'' beginning in January 1927.<ref>Burkhard Treude: ''Konservative Presse und Nationalsozialismus: Inhaltsanalyse der Neuen Preußischen (Kreuz-) Zeitung am Ende der Weimarer Republik'' [Conservative Press and National Socialism: Content Analysis of the Neue Preußische (Kreuz-) Zeitung at the End of the Weimar Republic]''.'' Studienverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer, 1975, p. 17.</ref> Although some employees such as the journalist Joachim Nehring supplied articles for both papers, the editorial offices of the ''Kreuzzeitung'' and the ''Deutsche Tageszeitung'' remained independent.
The issue of 1 March 1929 brought a significant change to the paper. The {{Lang|de|Neue Preußische (Kreuz-) Zeitung}} officially became the {{Lang|de|Neue Preußische Kreuzzeitung}}. The editors expressed the change to their readers as follows:<blockquote>"As of today our paper appears in a different garb. For the alteration to our masthead the following consideration was decisive: Our newspaper, founded in 1848 under the name '{{Lang|de|Neue Preußische Zeitung}}', very soon came generally to be called in public simply the ''Kreuzzeitung'' after its emblem, the Iron Cross. Even today, our paper is known at home and abroad almost exclusively by this name. Likewise, in political respects the word ''Kreuzzeitung'' has for decades been an established term based on the Iron Cross with its inscription 'With God for King and Fatherland'. Indeed, for Christian-conservative thought and action, this cross with its accompanying words is a firm symbol for which we fight, now as in the past. We thus remain true to our great tradition with its roots in Prussia and Prussian royalty."</blockquote>But not only the name was changed. For reasons of economy the paper was published only once instead of twice a day, although at the same time it appeared on Mondays as well. This did not result in an increase in circulation. At this time some 4,700 different daily and weekly newspapers were published throughout the Reich.<ref>Otto Altendorfer, Ludwig Hilmer: ''Medienmanagement,'' Band 2: ''Medienpraxis. Mediengeschichte. Medienordnung'' [Media Management, Vol 2: Media Practice. Media history. Media Organization]''.'' Springer-Verlag, 2015, p. 164.</ref> Never before or since have there been more newspapers in Germany. Smaller and ‘independent’ publishers were subject to enormous competitive pressure. Mergers took place almost weekly. With the onset of the [[Great Depression
In terms of circulation and content nothing changed for the ''Kreuzzeitung''. Its target readership remained the same: the nobility, large landowners, industrialists, senior officers and civil servants. Foertsch and Rauschenbusch got along well together, with the result that from then on the same publishing house produced two daily newspapers for an identical target group. Both the ''Kreuzzeitung'' and the ''Deutsche Tageszeitung'' retained their individual departments and editors-in-chief. Then in the spring of 1932 the ''Kreuzzeitung'' was dealt another blow. On 3 April
This assessment was proved true by the facts. On
▲But not only the name was changed. For reasons of economy the paper was published only once instead of twice a day, although at the same time it appeared on Mondays as well. This did not result in an increase in circulation. At this time some 4,700 different daily and weekly newspapers were published throughout the Reich.<ref>Otto Altendorfer, Ludwig Hilmer: ''Medienmanagement,'' Band 2: ''Medienpraxis. Mediengeschichte. Medienordnung'' [Media Management, Vol 2: Media Practice. Media history. Media Organization]''.'' Springer-Verlag, 2015, p. 164.</ref> Never before or since have there been more newspapers in Germany. Smaller and ‘independent’ publishers were subject to enormous competitive pressure. Mergers took place almost weekly. With the onset of the [[Great Depression|Great Depression''',''']] the Kreuzzeitung faced bankruptcy and was incorporated as a wholly owned subsidiary of Deutsche Tageszeitung Printers und Publishers, Inc. As a representative of the Kreuzzeitung, Kuno von Westarp joined the corporate board. At the same time the company took over the Deutsche Schriftenverlag, which had been publishing among other periodicals the ''Stahlhelm'', the central organ distributed by Franz Seldte. In this way Seldte became a member of the corporate board of Deutsche Tageszeitung Printers und Publishers, Inc, but he left the company together with Westarp in 1932.
▲In terms of circulation and content nothing changed for the Kreuzzeitung. Its target readership remained the same: the nobility, large landowners, industrialists, senior officers and civil servants. Foertsch and Rauschenbusch got along well together, with the result that from then on the same publishing house produced two daily newspapers for an identical target group. Both the Kreuzzeitung and the ''Deutsche Tageszeitung'' retained their individual departments and editors-in-chief. Then in the spring of 1932 the Kreuzzeitung was dealt another blow. On April 3, 1932, it had to report in a large announcement that its "editor-in-chief, Major (ret.) Georg Foertsch, died suddenly and unexpectedly at the age of 60 during the night of April 2, after having performed his editorial duties as usual into the evening hours just the day before". The ''[[Die Weltbühne|Weltbühne]]'' headlined "Kreuz-Zeitung ( † ): A reptile perishes and dies the deserved national death."<ref>Carl von Ossietzky: ''Die Neue Weltbühne: Wochenschrift für Politik, Kunst, Wirtschaft.'' Band 30, Ausgaben 27–52 [The ''New Weltbühne'': Weekly journal of politics, art, economics. Volume 30, issues 27-52]. Verlag der Weltbühne, 1934, p. 1435.</ref> This did not mean the death of Georg Foertsch per se, but rather that due to his death the paper had become leaderless and would inevitably perish because of its various stakeholders and spheres of interest.<ref>Larry Eugene Jones, Wolfram Pyta: ''Ich bin der letzte Preusse: der politische Lebensweg des konservativen Politikers Kuno Graf von Westarp'' [I am the Last Prussian: the Political Life of the Conservative Politician Kuno Graf von Westarp]''.'' Böhlau Verlag, 2006, p. 29 f.</ref>
On
Freedom of the press had already been restricted by emergency decrees during the Weimar Republic. Then on 28 February
▲This assessment was proved true by the facts. On May 2, 1932 Kuno von Westarp renounced the rights to which he was entitled and resigned from his position on the corporate board. This meant that the Kreuzzeitung was now merely a brand name of the Deutsche Tageszeitung Printers and Publishers, Inc. Franz Seldte also left the publishing house in 1932. Westarp and Seldte realized that [[Franz von Papen|Franz von Papen's]] plans to integrate, rein in and dominate the National Socialists within a monarchist-conservative government could no longer be realized. This made the Kreuzzeitung obsolete. As was to be foreseen, circulation fell to 5,000 copies after the [[July 1932 German federal election|Reichstag elections in June 1932]]. Civil servants in particular now were oriented towards the [[Völkischer Beobachter|''Völkischer Beobachter.'']]
After numerous changes in the editorial staff and its leadership, the remaining subscribers of the newspaper knew
▲== National Socialist Period ==
▲On September 18, 1932 the paper was officially renamed (only) Kreuzzeitung. On the same day Hans Elze, Georg Foertsch's right-hand man, took over the vacant editor-in-chief's chair. On January 16, 1933 Deutsche Tageszeitung Printers and Publishers, Inc. changed its name to German Central Printers, Inc. The corporation remained under the leadership of Helmut Rauschenbusch.
▲Freedom of the press had already been restricted by emergency decrees during the Weimar Republic. Then on February 28, 1933, the [[Reichstag Fire Decree|Reich President's Decree for the Protection of the People and the State]] came into force. It eliminated the fundamental right to freedom of opinion and freedom of the press and prohibited the dissemination of "incorrect news".<ref>Tobias Jaecker: ''Journalismus im Dritten Reich'' [Journalism in the Third Reich]''.'' Freie Universität Berlin, Friedrich-Meinecke-Institut für Geschichtswissenschaften, 2000, p. 3 f.</ref> What was correct and what was incorrect was henceforth determined by the [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]]. On April 30, 1933, the Reich Association of the German Press agreed to [[Gleichschaltung]] (‘co-ordination’). As a result of this Elze left the Kreuzzeitung on August 2, 1933. He "did not want to have dictated to him what should be reported".<ref>Burkhard Treude: ''Konservative Presse und Nationalsozialismus'' [Conservative Press and National Socialism: Content Analysis of the Neue Preußische (Kreuz-) Zeitung at the End of the Weimar Republic]''.'' Studienverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer, 1975, p. 30.</ref> In addition, a decree now stipulated that an owner could have a stake in only one daily newspaper and that publishing houses with more than one daily newspaper were to be expropriated. Rauschenbusch decided in favor of the Kreuzzeitung. On April 30, 1934 the last issue of the ''Deutsche Tageszeitung'' appeared even though it had a much higher circulation than the Kreuzzeitung. Rauschenbusch however was no longer able to influence the content of the Kreuzzeitung. In order to enforce control over content, the Reich Press Chamber appointed editors-in-chief starting in 1935. They were no longer subordinate to the publishers but made editorial decisions on their own authority according to the guidelines set by the Ministry of Propaganda.<ref>Kurt Koszyk: ''Deutsche Presse 1914-1945. Geschichte der deutschen Presse,'' Teil III [German Press 1914-1945. History of the German Press, Part 3]. Colloquium Verlag, 1972, p. 72 f.</ref>
▲After numerous changes in the editorial staff and its leadership, the remaining subscribers of the newspaper knew at the latest by the summer of 1937 that the Kreuzzeitung’s days were numbered. Until then the National Socialists had shown a certain consideration for the old-style conservative readers of the paper that was so rich in tradition. On August 29, 1937 the grace period ended. The front page read: "As of today we have taken over the Kreuzzeitung”. [[Joseph Goebbels]] had appointed Erich Schwarzer, a staunch National Socialist, as the new editor-in-chief and integrated the Kreuzzeitung, along with other bourgeois conservative media, into the German Publishers. Until that time the editors of the Kreuzzeitung had still provided some reports thoroughly worth reading such as those by Hans Georg von Studnitz, who during a six-month stay in India in 1937 interviewed [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] and [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]], among others,. Some of the old members of the editorial staff reacted to the new tone set by Erich Schwarzer by resigning, others by a kind of ‘work to rule’.<ref>Norbert Frei, Johannes Schmitz: ''Journalismus im Dritten Reich'' [Journalism in the Third Reich]''.'' C.H. Beck, 2011, p. 47.</ref>
▲* The last editor-in-chief, Eugen Mündler, was named in May 1938. The Kreuzzeitung - or what was left of it - appeared under his direction with text from the ''Berliner Tageblatt''. Readers received the last issue of the Kreuzzeitung on January 31, 1939. After 91 years, a piece of German press history had ended.
== Editors-in-chief ==
* 1848–1854 [[Hermann Wagener]]
* 1854–1872 Tuiscon Beutner
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* 1935–1937 Fritz Chlodwig Lange
* 1937–1938 Erich Schwarzer
* 1938–1939 Eugen Mündler
== Famous
* Alexander Andrae, pseudonym: Andrae-Roman
* [[Berthold Auerbach]]
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* Wilhelm Conrad Gomoll
* [[Siegfried Hirsch]]
*
* [[Otto Hoetzsch]]
* Helene von Krause, pseudonym: C. v. Hellen
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* Adolf Stein
* Hans Stelter
* [[Countess Louise Auguste Henriette of Stolberg-Stolberg|Louise zu Stolberg]], under a pseudonym
* Rudolph Stratz, theater critic
* Hans Georg von Studnitz, Asia correspondent
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== Literature ==
* Bernhard Studt: ''Bismarck als Mitarbeiter der „Kreuzzeitung“ in den Jahren 1848 und 1849'' [Bismarck as Contributor to the ''Kreuzzeitung'' in the years 1848 and 1849]. J. Kröger, Blankenese 1903.
* Hans Leuss: ''Wilhelm Freiherr von Hammerstein. 1881–1895 Chefredakteur der Kreuzzeitung. Auf Grund hinterlassener Briefe und Aufzeichnungen'' [Wilhelm Freiherr von Hammerstein. 1881-1895 Editor-in-Chief of the Kreuzzeitung. Based on Letters and Notes He Left Behind\. Walther, Berlin 1905.
* Luise Berg-Ehlers: ''Theodor Fontane und die Literaturkritik. Zur Rezeption eines Autors in der zeitgenössischen konservativen und liberalen Berliner Tagespresse'' [Theodor Fontane and Literary Criticism. On the Reception of an Author in the Contemporary Conservative and Liberal Berlin Daily Press]. Winkler, Bochum 1990,
* Meinolf Rohleder, Burkhard Treude: ''Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung. Berlin (1848–1939''). In: Heinz-Dietrich Fischer (Pub.): ''Deutsche Zeitungen des 17. bis 20. Jahrhunderts'' [German Newspapers of the
* Burkhard Treude: ''Konservative Presse und Nationalsozialismus. Inhaltsanalyse der „Neuen Preußischen (Kreuz-) Zeitung“ am Ende der Weimarer Republik'' [Conservative Press and National Socialism: Content Analysis of the Neue Preußische (Kreuz-) Zeitung at the End of the Weimar Republic] (= Bochumer Studien zur Publizistik- und Kommunikationswissenschaft; 4). Studienverl. Brockmeyer, Bochum 1975.
* ''Theodor Fontane im literarischen Leben. Zeitungen und Zeitschriften, Verlage und Vereine'' [ Theodor Fontane in Literary Life. Newspapers and Magazines, Publishers and Associations (= Schriften der Theodor Fontane Gesellschaft; 3). Dargest. v. Roland Berbig unter Mitarb. v. Bettina Hartz. de Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2000,
* Dagmar Bussiek: ''„Mit Gott für König und Vaterland!“ Die Neue Preußische Zeitung (Kreuzzeitung) 1848–1892'' [With God for King and Fatherland! The New Prussian Newspaper (Cross Newspaper) 1848-1892] (= Schriftenreihe von Stipendiatinnen und Stipendiaten der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung; 15). Lit, Münster u. a. 2002,
==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.zeitreisen.de/millennium/original_html/kreuz_1914_2407.GIF.html Front page from July 24, 1914, about the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia]
* [http://www.zeitreisen.de/millennium/original_html/kreuz_1919_0901.GIF.html Front page from January 9, 1919, about the reign of terror in Berlin]
* [https://zefys.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/list/title/zdb/24350382/ Digitization of volumes 1857, 1858, 1859, 1867 and 1868. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin; Die digitale Bibliothek
▲* Digitization of volumes 1857, 1858, 1859, 1867 and 1868. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin; Die digitale Bibliothek <nowiki>https://zefys.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/list/title/zdb/24350382/</nowiki>
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