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{{Short description|None}}
<!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "None" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! --> {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{History of Uruguay}}
The '''history of Uruguay''' comprises different periods: the pre-Columbian time or early history (up to the 16th century), the Colonial Period (1516–1811), the Period of Nation-Building (1811–1830), and the history of Uruguay as an independent country (
Written history began with the arrival of Spanish chroniclers in the expedition of [[Juan Díaz de Solís]] in 1516 to the [[Río de la Plata]], which marks the beginning of Spanish occupation of the region.
In 1527 the first European settlement was established in the territory of present-day Uruguay. It was called Sán Lázaro and founded by [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]] who was in command of a Spanish expedition. In 1777 the [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish Crown]] established the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]], which began to disintegrate with the [[May Revolution|Revolution of May 1810]].
The territory of present-day Uruguay was invaded by the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves|United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarve]], initially becoming part of the Portuguese kingdom as [[Cisplatina|Cisplatina Province]]. Between 1824 it was annexed to the [[Empire of Brazil]], and a year later it declared its independence, which began the [[Cisplatine War]]. In 1828, with British mediation, a peace agreement was signed and the independence of Uruguay was recognized. In 1830 the country's [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1830|first constitution]] was promulgated.
==Native==
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==The Thirty-Three==
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center|image1=Boceto para la Jura de la Constitución de 1830.jpg|caption1=Proclamation of Constitution of 1830 CE|image2=Juan Manuel Blanes - El Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales.jpg|caption2=Oath of the Thirty-Three|image3=Flag of the Treinta y Tres.svg|caption3=Flag of the Thirty-Three}}
On 19 April 1825, with the support of Buenos Aires, the [[Thirty-Three Orientals]], led by [[Juan Antonio Lavalleja]], landed in Cisplatina. They reached [[Montevideo]] on 20 May. On 14 June, in [[Florida, Uruguay|La Florida]], a provisional government was formed. On 25 August, the newly elected provincial assembly declared the secession of Cisplatina province from [[Empire of Brazil]] and allegiance to the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]]. In response, Brazil launched the [[Cisplatine War]].
{{Cite book
|last=Barroso
|first=Gustavo
|author-link=Gustavo Barroso
|url=https://www2.senado.leg.br/bdsf/bitstream/handle/id/574648/001148523_Historia_militar_Brasil.pdf
|title=História Militar do Brasil
|publisher=Senado Federal
|year=2019
|isbn=978-85-7018-495-5
|location=Brasilia
|language=pt
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
|last=Carneiro
|first=David
|url=https://bdor.sibi.ufrj.br/bitstream/doc/332/1/246%20PDF%20-%20OCR%20-%20RED.pdf
|title=História da Guerra Cisplatina
|publisher=Companhia Editora Nacional
|year=1946
|location=São Paulo
|language=pt
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Marley | first=D.F. | title=Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the Western Hemisphere [2 volumes] | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | year=2008 | isbn=978-1-59884-101-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VafOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA701 | access-date=2024-08-16 | page=701}}</ref>
This war ended on 27 August 1828 when [[Treaty of Montevideo (1828)|Treaty of Montevideo]] was signed. After mediation by [[John Ponsonby, 1st Viscount Ponsonby of Imokilly|Viscount Ponsonby]], a [[British Empire|British]] diplomat, Brazil and Argentina agreed to recognize an independent Uruguay as a buffer state between them. As with Paraguay, however, Uruguayan independence was not completely guaranteed, and only the [[Paraguayan War]] secured Uruguayan independence from the territorial ambitions of its larger neighbors.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} The [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1830|Constitution of 1830]] was approved in September 1829 and adopted on 18 July 1830.<ref>Burford, p. 17.</ref>
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The Uruguayan civil war developed into a crisis of international scope that destabilized the entire region. Even before the Colorado rebellion, the Blancos had sought an alliance with [[Paraguay]]an dictator [[Francisco Solano López]]. Berro's now purely Blanco government also received support from Argentine [[Federalist Party (Argentina)|Federalists]], who opposed Mitre and his [[Unitarian Party|Unitarians]]. The situation deteriorated as the Empire of Brazil was drawn into the conflict. Brazil decided to intervene to reestablish the security of its southern frontiers and its influence over regional affairs. In a combined offensive against Blanco strongholds, the Brazilian–Colorado troops advanced through Uruguayan territory, eventually surrounding [[Montevideo]]. Faced with certain defeat, the Blanco government capitulated on 20 February 1865.<ref>{{cite web |title=Caudillos and Political Stability |url=http://countrystudies.us/uruguay/9.htm |website=Country Studies US |access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref>
The short-lived war would have been regarded as an outstanding success for Brazilian and Argentine interests, had Paraguayan intervention in support of the Blancos (with attacks upon Brazilian and Argentine provinces) not led to the long and costly [[Paraguayan War]].{{Citation needed|reason=the idea that the war dragged on due to Paraguyan intervention is not common knowledge|date=July 2024}} In February 1868, former Presidents [[Bernardo Berro]] and [[Venancio Flores]] were assassinated.<ref>{{
== Return to factions, 1865–75 ==
[[File:Cerro de Montevideo desde la ciudad. Año 1865 (no watermark).jpg|thumbnail|right|Montevideo in 1865]]With the inauguration of [[Venancio Flores]] as president of Uruguay, the fusionist policy ended, once again strengthening and separating the Blanco and Colorado factions. The Colorados ruled without interruption from 1865 until 1958 despite internal conflicts, conflicts with neighboring states, political and economic fluctuations, and a wave of mass [[Immigration to Uruguay|immigration]] from Europe.<ref>The New York Times. (2004, July 15). ''Uruguay''. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/uruguay.html.</ref>
In the 1860s Uruguay was going through a period of prosperity. Montevideo became a major economic center of the region. Thanks to its natural harbor, it became an [[entrepôt]], or distribution hub, for goods from Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. The towns of [[Paysandú]] and [[Salto, Uruguay|Salto]], both on the [[Uruguay River]], also experienced similar development.<ref>Raúl A. Molina (1948, 151-64) emphasizes the centrality of early-17th c. colonialist explorer Hernandarias de Saavedra in his choice of settlements, up to the present day. Discussed more recently in Gustavo Verdesio, ''Forgotten Conquests: Rereading New World History from the Margins'' (Phila. PA: Temple University Press, 2001), ch. 3, "The Pacific Penetration." https://books.google.com/books?id=tnw7GmI2ZCgC {{ISBN|9781566398343}}</ref> In addition, new neighborhoods emerged in the city and numerous buildings began to be built. In addition, the European immigration that had begun after the Civil War continued, and Villa Cosmópolis —current [[Villa del Cerro]]— expanded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La villa convertida en barrio y en república {{!}} Municipio A |url=https://municipioa.montevideo.gub.uy/comunicacion/noticias/la-villa-convertida-en-barrio-y-en-republica |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=municipioa.montevideo.gub.uy}}</ref>
The economy saw a steep upswing after the Civil War, above all in livestock raising and export. Between 1860 and 1868, the number of sheep rose from 3 to 17 million. The reason for this increase lay above all in the improved methods of husbandry introduced by European immigrants.<ref>Johan Martin Gerard Kleinpenning, Peopling the Purple Land: A Historical Geography of Rural Uruguay, 1500-1915 (Amsterdam: Centrum voor Studie en Documentatie van Latijns Amerika, 1965/1995)
https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf4DAQAAIAAJ</ref>
In 1866 the country's first railway network was built.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trains of Uruguay - Railway Wonders of the World |url=https://www.railwaywondersoftheworld.com/trains-uruguay.html |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=www.railwaywondersoftheworld.com}}</ref> The Italians set up the ''Camera di Commercio Italiana di Montevideo'' ({{literally|Italian Chamber of Commerce of Montevideo}}) which played a strategic role in trade with Italy and building up the Italian middle class in the city.<ref>See A. Beretta Curi (2002), ''La Camera di Commercio Italiana di Montevideo 1883–1933''. Montevideo: Camera de Commercio Italiana. Some translated to English (2009) as essay, The contribution of Italian emigration to the formation of urban entrepreneurship in Uruguay: The creation of the Camera di Commercio Italiana di Montevideo, 1883-1933; available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298654806_The_contribution_of_Italian_emigration_to_the_formation_of_urban_entrepreneurship_in_Uruguay_The_creation_of_the_Camera_di_Commercio_Italiana_di_Montevideo_1883-1933</ref>
The government of General [[Lorenzo Batlle y Grau]] suppressed the [[Revolution of the Lances]], which started in September 1870 under the leadership of [[National Party (Uruguay)|Blanco]] [[Timoteo Aparicio]].<ref name="loc-9" /> After two years of struggle, a peace agreement was signed on 6 April 1872 when a power-sharing agreement was signed giving the Blancos control over four out of the thirteen [[departments of Uruguay]]—[[Canelones Department|Canelones]], [[San José Department|San Jose]], [[Florida Department|Florida]], and [[Cerro Largo Department|Cerro Largo]]—and a guaranteed, if limited representation in Parliament.<ref name="loc-9">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/uruguay/9.htm |title=Caudillos and Political Stability (Chapter 9) |work=Uruguay: A Country Study |editor1=Rex A. Hudson |editor2=Sandra W. Meditz |year=1990 |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |location=Washington DC |access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> This establishment of the policy of coparticipation represented the search for a new formula of compromise, based on the coexistence of the party in power and the party in opposition.<ref name="loc-9" />
== Militarism and modernization, 1875–1890 ==
The power-sharing agreement of 1872 split the Colorados into two factions—the ''principistas'', who were open to cooperation with the Blancos, and the ''netos'', who were against it. In the 1873 Presidential election, the ''netos'' supported election of [[José Eugenio Ellauri]], who was a surprise candidate with no political powerbase. Five days of rioting in Montevideo between the two Colorado factions led to a military coup on 15 January 1875. Ellauri was exiled and ''neto'' representative Pedro Varela assumed the Presidency.<ref name="Scheina">Scheina, ch. 25.</ref>
In May 1875, the ''principistas'' began the [[Tricolor Revolution]], which was defeated later in the year by an unexpected coalition of Blanco leader [[Aparicio Saravia]] and the Army under the command of [[Lorenzo Latorre]]. Between 1875 and 1890, the military became the center of political power.<ref name="loc-10">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/uruguay/10.htm |title=Modern Uruguay, 1875–1903 (Chapter 10) |work=Uruguay: A Country Study |editor1=Rex A. Hudson |editor2=Sandra W. Meditz |year=1990 |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |location=Washington DC |access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> The
On March 10, 1876, Lorenzo Latorre overthrew the [[Pedro Varela|Pedro Varela Olivera]] government and established a strong executive Presidency, which began the period known as {{Language with name/for|es|Militarismo|Militarism}}.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Arregui |first=Miguel |title=Latorre, el Militarismo y la modernidad |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/latorre-el-militarismo-y-la-modernidad-20171213500 |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=El Observador}}</ref> The main objectives of the Latorre's regime were the achievement of internal peace, order (especially in the countryside) and the affirmation of the right to private property.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://contenidoseducativosdigitales.edu.uy/files/052-el-militarismo.pdf|title=Militarism - ANEP|accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref> To achieve them, reforms were implemented that led to the modernization of the country and the establishment of a modern state apparatus.
To ensure peace and order, the security forces were professionalized and modernized. The [[National Army (Uruguay)|National Army]] obtained a monopoly on [[Mauser]] and [[Remington Arms|Remington]] rifles, which allowed it to have supremacy against any uprising, while also serving as a deterrent method for seditionists.In addition, the Rural Police was created to prevent livestock theft and rustling.<ref name=":5" /> To guarantee private property, the Rural Code was also drafted, which provided for the mandatory fencing of fields, and the {{Language with name/for|es|Oficina de Marcas y Señales|Trademark and Signals Office}} was created to keep track of livestock and their owner.
In 1877 the "Common Education Law" was passed, which was based on a bill by [[José Pedro Varela]] and which laid the foundations of the [[Education in Uruguay|Uruguayan educational system]]. Also known as the {{Language with name/for|es|Reforma Vareliana|Varelian Reform}}, it established universal, compulsory and free education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=19 de marzo: Natalicio de José Pedro Varela {{!}} Administración Nacional de Educación Pública |url=https://www.anep.edu.uy/15-d/19-marzo-natalicio-jos-pedro-varela |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.anep.edu.uy}}</ref> At first it was intended that it would also be secular, but it was decided not to so as not to deteriorate relations between the government and the Catholic Church. On the other hand, it was established that parents had to clarify if they wanted catechism classes to be taught to their children.<ref>{{Cite web |title=El visionario que transformó la educación en un derecho igualitario y accesible para todos {{!}} Administración Nacional de Educación Pública |url=https://www.anep.edu.uy/destacada-1/el-visionario-que-transform-educaci-n-en-un-derecho-igualitario-y-accesible-para-todos |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.anep.edu.uy}}</ref> The establishment of public education contributed to the strengthening of the Spanish language in areas close to the borders of Portuguese-speaking Brazil as well as to the integration of immigrants.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Arteaga |first=Juan José |title=Historia Contemporánea del Uruguay |publisher=Ediciones Cruz del Sur |year=2018 |isbn=978-9974-675-92-6 |location=Montevideo |pages=93 |language=es |trans-title=Contemporary History of Uruguay}}</ref>
[[File:Estacion_central_artigas.jpg|thumb|The eclectic-style [[General Artigas railway station]] was inaugurated in 1897 and has served as Montevideo's main station ever since.]]
With the passing of the “General Law of Railway Routes”, the [[Rail transport in Uruguay|railway network]] was regulated and expanded, with the formation of the first companies with British capital.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Historia |url=https://www.afe.com.uy/historia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113153510/https://www.afe.com.uy/historia/ |archive-date=13 November 2022 |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=A.F.E. |language=es }}</ref> The railways converged in Montevideo, which made it possible to transport raw materials and manufactured products to the [[Port of Montevideo|country's main port]], as well as enabling the faster movement of troops to any part of the territory in the event of an armed uprising.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=http://contenidoseducativosdigitales.edu.uy/files/056-el-tren-y-el-telegrafo.pdf|title=Tren y telégrafo - ANEP|accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref> In addition, the telegraph line was expanded throughout the country.<ref name=":6" />
In 1879, the Civil Status Registry was created for the registration of births, marriages and deaths, which until then was in charge of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Children/BirthRegistration/Uruguay.pdf|title=Registro de Estado Civil|accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref> That year, the existing vicariate in the country was promoted to the Diocese of Montevideo on 13 July 1878 by Pope [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] and [[Jacinto Vera]] was appointed as the first bishop of Montevideo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-06 |title=La historia de Jacinto Vera, el obispo uruguayo que está a un paso de ser santo |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/vida-actual/la-historia-de-jacinto-vera-el-obispo-uruguayo-que-esta-a-un-paso-de-ser-santo |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=EL PAIS |language=es-UY}}</ref>[[File:Lazareto_-_Isla_de_Flores.tif|thumb|[[Isla de Flores]] served as a [[lazaretto]] for thousands of immigrants to complete quarantines before entering the country.|left]]
During the militarism the arrival of a large [[immigration to Uruguay|number of European immigrants]] that had begun after the Civil War continued. It led to the creation of large [[Italian Uruguayan]] and [[Spanish Uruguayan]] communities that heavily influenced the [[Culture of Uruguay|culture]] and [[Demographics of Uruguay|demographics]] of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inmigrantes {{!}} 1811-2011 |url=http://www.1811-2011.edu.uy/B1/content/inmigrantes |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.1811-2011.edu.uy}}</ref> Within a few decades, the population of Uruguay doubled and Montevideo's tripled as most of the recent immigrants settled there. The number of immigrants rose from 48 percent of the population in 1860 to 68 percent in 1868. In the 1870s, a further 100,000 Europeans arrived, so that, by 1879, about 438,000 people were living in Uruguay, a quarter of them in Montevideo.<ref>Goebel, pp. 191–229.</ref> Due to immigration, Uruguay's population reached one million in the early 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Uruguay: A Country Study|last=Hudson|first=Rex|publisher=Federal Research Division|year=1992|isbn=0844407372|location=Washington D.C|pages=[https://archive.org/details/uruguaycountryst00huds/page/65 65]|url=https://archive.org/details/uruguaycountryst00huds/page/65}}</ref>[[File:Curacion de Máximo Santos.jpg|thumbnail|Maximo Santos after assassination attempt]]In addition, the economy was stabilized and exports, mainly of [[Hereford (cattle)|Hereford]] beef and [[Merino]] wool, increased. In [[Fray Bentos (food brand)|Fray Bentos]] corned beef production started.<ref name="Hartley2015">{{cite book |author=John Hartley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OH5iBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA87 |title=Bully Beef and Biscuits: Food in the Great War |date=28 February 2015 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-4738-5490-1 |pages=86–87}}</ref> In 1880, Lorenzo Latorre resigned from the presidency, being succeeded by [[Francisco Antonino Vidal]], who finished his term. In 1882 he was succeeded by [[Máximo Santos]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Almorzando con Máximo Santos |url=http://viajes.elpais.com.uy/2019/09/01/almorzando-con-maximo-santos/ |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=viajes.elpais.com.uy |language=en-ES}}</ref> In 1886 the Quebracho Revolution took place, in which revolutionary forces that brought together Blanco and Colorado supporters faced off against the forces of the militarist government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-08 |title=El día que Quebracho se quedó solo |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/que-pasa/el-dia-que-quebracho-se-quedo-solo |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref> In August 1886, President Santos survived an assassination attempt that led him to leave office.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mume.montevideo.gub.uy/sites/mume.montevideo.gub.uy/files/articulos/descargas/maximo_santos_y_el_militarismo_1.pdf|title=Máximo Santos and the militarist regime - Museo de la Memoria|accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref>
Máximo Santos was succeeded by General [[Máximo Tajes]], who had led the government forces during the Quebracho Revolution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TAJES, Máximo Teniente General |url=http://wwwf.ejercito.mil.uy/index.php/es/23-todos/88-tajes-maximo-teniente-general |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=wwwf.ejercito.mil.uy}}</ref> He carried out an opening policy, which allowed the reorganization of the then existing political parties.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, during the Tajes administration there was economic prosperity in which the construction of European-style buildings increased in Montevideo, and the gas lighting service was replaced by electric lighting in a large part of the city.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.audhe.org.uy/images/stories/upload/Revista/Revista_18/Waiter.pdf|title=TRAYECTORIA TECNOLÓGICA, ASPECTOS ECONÓMICOS E INSTITUCIONALES: INICIOS DE LA GENERACIÓN DE ENERGÍA ELÉCTRICA EN URUGUAY|accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref>
== Return to civil rule and collectivism, 1890–1903 ==
By 1890 the country continued to undergo transformations, with increasing urbanization, mass European immigration, an increase in the educational level due to compulsory education and the development of the middle class. In the political sphere, the period that would last until 1903 was characterized by the political predominance of the upper bourgeoisie, to the detriment of the ''caudillismo'' that had prevailed for decades.<ref name=":3" />
In 1890, Colorado [[Julio Herrera y Obes]] took office as president which marked the end of militarism and the return to civil rule.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-31 |title=Julio Herrera y Obes: brillo y carisma {{!}} La Mañana |url=https://www.xn--lamaana-7za.uy/cultura/julio-herrera-y-obes-brillo-y-carisma/ |access-date=2024-02-07 |language=es}}</ref> He proposed the {{Language with name/for|es|Influencia directriz|Directive influence}}, a political thesis that postulates that the president in office must choose candidates for high elective positions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://contenidoseducativosdigitales.edu.uy/files/068-el-colectivismo.pdf|title=Colectivismo en Uruguay - ANEP|accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref> Thus, collectivism emerged, in which the members of ''La Colectividad'', a sector of the [[Colorado Party (Uruguay)|Colorado Party]], ensured successive control of the presidency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Grèzes |first=Daniel Iglesias |title=El estatismo de los uruguayos |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/el-estatismo-de-los-uruguayos-201981210159 |access-date=2024-02-07 |website=El Observador}}</ref>
In the months after Herrera and Obes took office, the [[Baring crisis|Baring Crisis]] broke out, greatly affecting the Uruguayan economy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-18 |title=Las turbulencias económicas nunca pudieron abatirnos {{!}} La Mañana |url=https://www.xn--lamaana-7za.uy/actualidad/las-turbulencias-economicas-nunca-pudieron-abatirnos/ |access-date=2024-02-07 |language=es}}</ref> In 1894 [[Juan Idiarte Borda]] —a member of ''La Colectividad''— succeeded Herrera y Obes as president. During his administration, the state bank, [[Banco de la República Oriental del Uruguay|Banco de la Republica]], was established.<ref>Banco de la República Oriental del Uruguay, ''Sinopsis económica y financiera del Uruguay'' (Montevideo: Impresara Uruguaya, 1933); and Simon G. Hanson, ''Utopia in Uruguay: Chapters in the Economic History of Uruguay'' (Oxford University Press, 1938).</ref><ref>Discussed more recently in Ronn F. Pineo, ''Cities Of Hope: People, Protests, And Progress In Urbanizing Latin America, 1870-1930'' (London: Routledge, 2018). https://books.google.com/books?id=E8mWDwAAQBAJ
{{ISBN|9780429970191}}</ref> Due to collectivism, which left state politics in the president's inner circle and ensured the supremacy of the Colorado Party, the [[National Party (Uruguay)|National Party]] was excluded and without representation due to electoral legislation, in addition to denouncing fraud in the 1896 elections.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-24 |title=La Revolución de 1897 |url=https://www.carasycaretas.com.uy/la-revolucion-de-1897 |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.carasycaretas.com.uy |language=es-ES}}</ref>[[File:Práctica de tiro de fuerzas nacionalistas en la Revolucion de 1897 en Uruguay.jpg|thumbnail|right|Blanco soldiers during the [[Revolution of 1897]]]]In March 1897 there was an uprising led by the Blanco caudillo [[Aparicio Saravia]], known as the [[Revolution of 1897]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-06-18 |title=Allá por el año de 1896 |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/opinion/columnistas/alla-por-el-ano-de-1896 |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref> The confrontation ended with the signing of the ''Pacto de la Cruz'', in which greater political representation and coparticipation was agreed upon. Thus, the governors of the departments of [[Cerro Largo Department|Cerro Largo]], [[Treinta y Tres Department|Treinta y Tres]], [[Rivera Department|Rivera]], [[Maldonado, Uruguay|Maldonado]], [[Flores Department|Flores]] and [[San José Department|San José]] would be appointed by the Honorable Board, the National Party's central body.<ref>{{Cite web |title=126° aniversario del Pacto de La Cruz |url=https://www.gub.uy/intendencia-florida/comunicacion/noticias/126-aniversario-del-pacto-cruz |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Intendencia de Florida |language=es}}</ref>
On August 25, 1897, President Juan Idiarte Borda was assassinated while attending Independence Day celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-17 |title=Juan Idiarte Borda y un enigma que persiste: por qué lo mataron |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/cultural/juan-idiarte-borda-y-un-enigma-que-persiste-por-que-lo-mataron |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref> He was succeeded by Juan Lindolfo Cuestas who held the position until 1903.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-15 |title=El gato de Cuestas {{!}} La Mañana |url=https://www.xn--lamaana-7za.uy/cultura/el-gato-de-cuestas/ |access-date=2024-02-08 |language=es}}</ref>
Due to the high educational and cultural level of Uruguayan society at the end of the 19th century, the "Generation of 900" emerged, an influential group of writers, poets and intellectuals. It was made up of [[Florencio Sánchez]], [[María Eugenia Vaz Ferreira]], [[Julio Herrera y Reissig]], [[Delmira Agustini]] and [[Horacio Quiroga]], among others.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cervantes |first=Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de |title=La generación del 900 |url=https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/la-generacion-del-900/html/89f292c4-920b-4537-b756-f17be774f5f8_7.html |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes |language=es}}</ref>
== Batlle era, 1903–33 ==
[[File:1904-1.JPG|thumbnail|upright|Poster of President Batlle after victory over Blancos in 1904]]
[[File:Palaciosalvouruguay.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Palacio Salvo]], built in [[Montevideo]] from 1925 to 1928, was once the [[List of tallest buildings in Latin America|tallest building in Latin America]].]]
[[José Batlle y Ordóñez]], President from 1903 to 1907 and again from 1911 to 1915, set the pattern for Uruguay's modern political development and dominated the political scene until his death in 1929. Batlle was opposed to the coparticipation agreement because he considered division of departments among the parties to be undemocratic. The Blancos feared loss of their power if a [[Proportional representation|proportional election]] system was introduced and started their last
The Batlle era saw the introduction of various reforms<ref>
Severance pay for commercial employees was introduced in 1914, and an [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour working day]] in 1915. In 1918, with the passing of a [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1918|new constitution]], Uruguay proclaimed a secular republic, with the [[separation of church and state]].<ref>Juan Rial, "The Social Imaginary: Utopian Political Myths in Uruguay (Change and Permanence during and after the Dictatorship)", in Saúl Sosnowski and Louise B. Popkin, eds., ''Repression, Exile, and Democracy: Uruguayan Culture'' (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 1993), 59-82. {{ISBN|9780822312680}}.</ref> Loans and seeds were provided to poor farmers, and agricultural colonies were established,<ref>[https://www.gub.uy/junta-departamental-montevideo/institucional/informacion-gestion/actas/acta-n-15442011 Acta N° 1544/2011 Sesión Ordinaria 19/05/2011]</ref> while Montevideo also underwent a great deal and social and economic development during these years.<ref>
The economic policy of Batllism was based on the [[nationalization]] of companies, under the idea that certain services should be provided by the State, in search of the common good.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arias |first=Cecilia |date=2018-10-05 |title=Gobiernos reformistas en Uruguay 1947-1958: ¿profundización de la democracia en los inicios de la Guerra Fría? |url=https://journals.openedition.org/nuevomundo/72965?lang=es |journal=Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos. Nouveaux
The [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1918|Constitution of 1918]], as a result of political negotiation, established an Executive Branch made up of the [[President of Uruguay|President of the Republic]] and the [[National Council of Administration]], a collegiate body.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uruguay - The Constitution |url=https://countrystudies.us/uruguay/62.htm |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> The president—whose term lasted four years—appointed the holders of the ministerial portfolios of the [[Ministry of the Interior (Uruguay)|Interior]], [[Ministry of National Defense (Uruguay)|Defense]] and [[Ministry of Foreign Relations (Uruguay)|Foreign Relations]]. The National Council of Administration, on the other hand, appointed those of [[Ministry of Economy and Finance (Uruguay)|Finance]], [[Ministry of Education and Culture (Uruguay)|Instruction]], [[Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare (Uruguay)|Labor]], [[Ministry of Public Health (Uruguay)|Health]] and [[Ministry of Transport and Public Works (Uruguay)|Public Works]]. This collegiate body was elected directly, and was renewed every two years by 1/3 of its members.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Creación y evolución histórica |url=https://www.gub.uy/presidencia/institucional/creacion-evolucion-historica |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=Uruguay Presidencia |language=es}}</ref>[[File:Estadio Centenario 1930.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[Estadio Centenario]], the main stadium of the 1930 FIFA World Cup]]Around 1900, infant mortality rates (IMR) in Uruguay were among the world's lowest, indicating a very healthy population. By 1910, however, the IMR leveled off, while it continued to drop in other countries. The leading causes of death—diarrheal and respiratory diseases—did not decline, indicating a growing public health problem.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The infant mortality conundrum in Uruguay during the first half of the twentieth century: an analysis according to causes of death |first=Anne-Emanuelle |last=Birn |journal=Continuity & Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=435–461|doi=10.1017/S0268416010000263 |s2cid=145495121 }}</ref>
Further social and economic reforms were carried out in the years following Batlle's passing.<ref>
==Gabriel Terra dictatorship, 1933–38==
In the 1920s, Uruguayan society and economy were prosperous and modern. However, the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] greatly affected the country, which depended heavily on foreign trade. The United Kingdom decided at the [[British Empire Economic Conference]] to freeze import volumes from Uruguay, and international meat prices decreased drastically.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Arteaga |first=Juan José |title=Historia Contemporánea del Uruguay |year=2018 |isbn=978-9974-675-92-6 |location=Montevideo |pages=
In the [[1930 Uruguayan general election|general election of 1930]], Colorado [[Gabriel Terra]] was elected president.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-21 |title=Gabriel Terra, el batllista que jugaba en su propia cancha |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/informacion/politica/gabriel-terra-el-batllista-que-jugaba-en-su-propia-cancha |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref> He took office on March 1, 1931, and from the beginning he was critical of the [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1918|1918 Constitution]] that created the [[National Council of Administration]], which he considered generated ungovernability.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-30 |title=¿Cómo se vivió la dictadura de Gabriel Terra en Colonia? |url=https://ladiaria.com.uy/colonia/articulo/2021/7/como-se-vivio-la-dictadura-de-gabriel-terra-en-colonia/ |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=la diaria |language=es-UY}}</ref> The Council's measures to alleviate the economic crisis included adjustments for all sectors of society, which increased general discontent and led to the political isolation of the body. The Colorado Batllist majority and the [[Independent National Party (Uruguay)|Independent National Party]] minority of the Council reached an agreement to implement state intervention, for which the creation of the state-owned petroleum company, [[ANCAP (Uruguay)|National Administration of Fuels, Alcohols and Portland]] (ANCAP), was ordered to prevent foreign currency evasion by foreign companies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-10-15 |title=Hace 75 años nacía Ancap, el primer ente industrial del Estado uruguayo |url=https://www.lr21.com.uy/comunidad/226455-hace-75-anos-nacia-ancap-el-primer-ente-industrial-del-estado-uruguayo |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=LARED21 |language=es}}</ref>
[[File:Afiche Terra.jpg|thumb|Propaganda of Terra and the March revolution]]
In rejection of the agreement in the Council, the leader of the opposition [[National Party (Uruguay)|National Party]], [[Luis Alberto de Herrera]] joined President Terra in the campaign to carry out a constitutional reform.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-06 |title=El día que Herrera pasó por la casa de Terra para ofrecerle su apoyo limpio y desinteresado {{!}} La Mañana |url=https://www.xn--lamaana-7za.uy/opinion/el-dia-que-herrera-paso-por-la-casa-de-terra-para-ofrecerle-su-apoyo-limpio-y-desinteresado/ |access-date=2024-01-30 |language=es}}</ref> On March 30, a manifesto by Colorado Batllista politicians opposed to the constitutional reform bill was published in the ''[[El Día (Uruguay)|El Día]]'' newspaper, and in response, Terra decreed some extraordinary measures that were annulled by the [[General Assembly of Uruguay|General Assembly]] hours later.<ref>{{Cite book |
Terra established a traditionalist, protectionist and cooperative regime.<ref>http://contenidoseducativosdigitales.edu.uy/files/golpe-y-dictadura-de-terra.pdf {{bare URL PDF|date=March 2024}}</ref> It was characterized by strong nationalism, with the exaltation of national symbols and military parades.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Rodríguez Ayçaguer |first=Ana María |title=La diplomacia del anticomunismo: la influencia del gobierno de Getúlio Vargas en la interrupción de las relaciones diplomáticas de Uruguay con la URSS en diciembre de 1935 |publisher=Departamento de Historia del Uruguay, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de la República |year=2008 |pages=94 |trans-title=The diplomacy of anti-communism: the influence of the Getúlio Vargas government in the interruption of Uruguay's diplomatic relations with the USSR in December 1935}}</ref> In June 1933, [[1933 Uruguayan Constitutional Assembly election|elections]] were held to elect the members of the Constitutional Assembly in charge of drafting a new Constitution. In March 1934, this body appointed him president until 1938. In April a [[1934 Uruguayan constitutional referendum|referendum]] was held in which [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1934|a new constitution]] was approved. It abolished the National Council of Administration and transferred its powers to the President, reinstating the single-person executive.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bottinelli |first=Oscar |title=La Constitución ¿über alles? |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/la-constitucion-uber-alles--2018617500 |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=El Observador}}</ref> In addition, [[LGBT rights in Uruguay|homosexuality]] was decriminalized, a large number of rights were constitutionalized, and equality between both sexes and [[Women's suffrage in Uruguay|women's suffrage]] were established.<ref name="Miller1991">{{cite book |author=Francesca Miller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sXiTQpR3crwC&pg=PA98 |title=Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice |publisher=UPNE |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-87451-558-9 |page=98}}</ref>
In foreign policy, Terra's regime broke diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1935 and recognized the [[National Defense Junta|National Defense Junta of Spain]] led by [[Francisco Franco]] in 1936.<ref name=":4" /> It also had close ties with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |last=administrador |title=Nazismo en el Río de la Plata (1933-1945) |url=http://centroshoa.org.uy/2019/04/02/nazismo-en-el-rio-de-la-plata-1933-1945/ |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=Centro Recordatorio del Holocausto de Uruguay |language=es}}</ref> During his administration, the construction of the [[Rincón del Bonete Lake|Rincón del Bonete]] hydroelectric dam was ordered to a consortium of German companies, which transferred its own technicians to the country, who settled in a town in the rural area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inexplicable faro nazi en Rincón del Bonete |url=http://viajes.elpais.com.uy/2014/08/01/inexplicable-faro-nazi-en-rincon-del-bonete/ |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=viajes.elpais.com.uy |language=en-ES}}</ref>
Terra was succeeded by his close political follower and brother-in-law General [[Alfredo Baldomir|Alfredo Baldomir Ferrari]]. During this time, state retained large control over nation's economy and commerce, while pursuing free-market policies.
==''Dictablanda'' and new constitution, 1938–47==
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[[File:Admiral Graf Spee Flames.jpg|thumb|The sinking of the German cruiser [[German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee|''Admiral Graf Spee'']] is the best known event of [[Uruguay during World War II]].]]
With the outbreak of [[World War II]], President Baldomir declared the country's neutrality.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arregui |first=Miguel |title=La política exterior uruguaya en la edad de la razón |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/la-politica-exterior-uruguaya-en-la-edad-de-la-razon-201921022350 |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=El Observador}}</ref> However, as the months passed, the Uruguayan government began to take a position in favor of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and US directives, which meant a radical change in foreign policy with respect to that of Gabriel Terra.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-12 |title=Una historia olvidada: cuando Uruguay ayudó a Finlandia |url=https://ladiaria.com.uy/politica/articulo/2018/5/una-historia-olvidada-cuando-uruguay-ayudo-a-finlandia/ |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=la diaria |language=es-UY}}</ref> On 13 December 1939, the [[Battle of the River Plate]] was fought a day's sailing northeast of Uruguay between three British cruisers and the German "pocket battleship" {{ship|German cruiser|Admiral Graf Spee||2}}. After a three-day layover in the port of [[Montevideo]], the captain of ''Admiral Graf Spee'', believing he was hopelessly outnumbered, ordered the ship [[scuttling|scuttled]] on 17 December.
With the escalation of the war, a parliamentary commission was established to investigate German and Italian cultural and sports organizations, which were presumed to be used to cover up Nazi-fascist activities infiltrated in the country.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/DENUNCIADEACTIVIDADESNAZISENELURUGUAYJosePedroCardozo |title=DENUNCIA DE ACTIVIDADES NAZIS EN EL URUGUAY Jose Pedro Cardozo |language=Spanish}}</ref> In addition, a law was passed classifying as an illicit association any organization that disseminated "ideas contrary to the democratic-republican form of government" and the [[Armed Forces of Uruguay|Armed Forces]] were organized, establishing mandatory military service due to fears of an invasion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Redacción |title=Un, dos, tres... Marchen |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/un-dos-tres-marchen-20114111900 |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=El Observador}}</ref>[[File:Royal Air Force Fighter Command, 1939-1945. CH11386.jpg|thumb|right|Senor Montero de Bustamante, Uruguayan Chargé d'Affaires in the United Kingdom, speaking at a 1943 ceremony to name a [[Royal Air Force]] Spitfire fighter, funded by Uruguayan donations]]In June 1940, Germany threatened to break off diplomatic relations with Uruguay.<ref>{{cite news |first=John W. |last=White |title=Minister Ready to Ask for His Passports if Any Local Nazi Leaders Are Deported |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1940/06/20/archives/reich-threatens-uruguayan-break-minister-ready-to-ask-for-his.html |quote=Germany has now begun to exert tremendous political and economic pressure on the Uruguayan Government to halt what Berlin calls an unfriendly anti-German campaign here. The Reich has threatened to break off diplomatic relations if any Nazi leaders are deported. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=20 June 1940 |access-date=22 May 2009}}</ref> In December, Germany protested that Uruguay gave safe harbor to {{HMS|Carnarvon Castle}} after she fought the [[German auxiliary cruiser Thor|German raider ''Thor'']].<ref>{{cite news |first=John W. |last=White |title=Nazis Protest Aid to Raider's Victim. Object in Uruguay to Giving Carnarvon Castle 72 Hours to Mend Battle Scars |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1940/12/10/archives/nazis-protest-aid-to-raiders-victim-object-in-uruguay-to-giving.html |quote=The German Government, through its Minister in Montevideo, [[Otto Langmann]], made a formal diplomatic protest this afternoon against... |work=[[New York Times]] |date=10 December 1940 |access-date=22 May 2009}}</ref> The ship was repaired with steel plate reportedly salvaged from ''Admiral Graf Spee''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Search For Raider |url= http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C15F7355A167A93CBA91789D95F448485F9 |quote=The British auxiliary cruiser Carnarvon Castle, hit twenty-two times in a battle with a German sea raider, was being repaired tonight with steel plates reportedly taken from the scuttled German pocket battleship ''Admiral Graf Spee''. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=9 December 1940 |access-date=22 May 2009}}</ref>
On 25 January 1942, Uruguay terminated its diplomatic relations with [[Nazi Germany]], as did 21 other Latin American nations.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hulen |first=Bertram D. |date=22 January 1942 |title=Actual Rupture is left to Congress of each Signatory |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1942/01/22/archives/argentina-agrees-actual-rupture-is-left-to-congress-of-each.html |access-date=22 May 2009 |work=[[New York Times]] |quote=Unanimous agreement by the twenty-one American republics on a resolution for severance of relations with the Axis powers was reached late today at a three-hour consultation in the office of Foreign Minister Oswaldo Aranha of Brazil, who is chairman of the Inter-American Conference.}}</ref> In February 1945, Uruguay signed the [[Declaration by United Nations]] and subsequently declared war on the Axis powers but did not participate in any actual fighting.<ref>{{Cite web
Simultaneously with the war in Europe, in Uruguay there was a lack of agreement between the factions of the different parties regarding the constitutional reform. The [[Herrerism]] sector led by [[Luis Alberto de Herrera]], which had agreed to the [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1934|1934 Constitution]], was opposed to the reform bill, and after not supporting the president's candidate for speaker of the [[Chamber of Representatives of Uruguay|Chamber of Representatives]], Baldomir replaced three Herrerista ministers.
Due to the lack of political agreement, in the early morning of February 21, 1942, President Baldomir carried out a self-coup by dissolving the [[General Assembly of Uruguay|General Assembly]] and the [[Electoral Court of Uruguay|Electoral Court]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-26 |title=Golpe de carnaval {{!}} La Mañana |url=https://www.xn--lamaana-7za.uy/opinion/golpe-de-carnaval/ |access-date=2024-01-31 |language=es}}</ref> In addition, he announced the call for elections for the last Sunday of November of that year. During the coup there were no arrests, no police repression, no censorship, and no violations of human rights, which is why these events are known as the {{Language with name/for|es|Golpe Bueno|Good Coup}} and the regime, as ''[[dictablanda]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-26 |title=La responsabilidad
The General Assembly was replaced by a Council of State of 16 members—Colorado Batllistas and [[Independent National Party (Uruguay)|Independent Blancos]]—which was in charge of drafting a new constitutional reform bill. On November 29, 1942, a [[1942 Uruguayan general election|general election]] were held in which Colorado [[Juan José de Amézaga]] was elected president of the Republic.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-21 |title=Juan José de Amézaga: el presidente olvidado |url=https://ladiaria.com.uy/opinion/articulo/2021/9/juan-jose-de-amezaga-el-presidente-olvidado/ |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=la diaria |language=es-UY}}</ref> The Council of State would be dissolved shortly after and replaced by the newly elected parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-04 |title=Juan José de Amézaga y el regreso a la normalidad democrática |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/informacion/politica/juan-jose-de-amezaga-y-el-regreso-a-la-normalidad-democratica |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref> Along with the general election, a constitutional referendum was held, which won by around 77% of the vote, and gave effect to the [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1942|Constitution of 1942]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Alisky |first1=Marvin H. |last2=Weinstein |first2=Martin |last3=Vanger |first3=Milton I. |last4=James |first4=Preston E. |date=October 4, 2019 |title=Uruguay |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Uruguay/The-struggle-for-national-identity#ref32674 |access-date=December 4, 2019 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>
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Uruguay reached the peak of its economic prosperity thanks to the World War II and the [[Korean War]]. During these conflicts, the country supplied beef, wool, and leather to the Allied armies.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Cómo una pequeña ciudad de Uruguay revolucionó nuestra forma de comer |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/vert-tra-46917409 |access-date=2024-01-31 |work=BBC News Mundo |language=es}}</ref> In 1949, to cover the British debt for the beef deliveries during WWII, British-owned railroads and water companies were nationalized.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-09-16 |title=Hace 50 años AFE pasó de los ingleses a manos uruguayas |url=https://www.lr21.com.uy/comunidad/91853-hace-50-anos-afe-paso-de-los-ingleses-a-manos-uruguayas |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=LARED21 |language=es}}</ref> [[Luis Batlle Berres]] implemented an interventionist and protectionist policy, which in several aspects continued the import substitution policy developed in the 1930s, and the principles of the Batllism welfare state implemented by [[José Batlle y Ordóñez]] at the beginning of the century, for which it was called {{Language with name/for|es|Neobatllismo|New Batllism}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-30 |title=Neobatllismo y Estado de Bienestar {{!}} Uruguay Educa |url=http://uruguayeduca.anep.edu.uy/recursos-educativos/661 |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=uruguayeduca.anep.edu.uy |language=es}}</ref>
In the [[1950 Uruguayan general election|1950 general election]] Colorado [[Andrés Martínez Trueba]] —who was part of List 15, Batlle Berres' faction— was elected president of the Republic.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Giménez Rodríguez |first=Alejandro |title=El libro de los presidentes uruguayos: de Fructuoso Rivera a Jorge Batlle (1830-2004) |publisher=LINARDI Y RISSO |year=2004 |isbn=9974-559-48-0 |pages=152–156 |trans-title=The book of Uruguayan presidents: from Fructuoso Rivera to Jorge Batlle (1830-2004)}}</ref> After taking office he proposed a constitutional reform to reinstate a collegiate executive, which was supported by the leader of the [[National Party (Uruguay)|National Party]], [[Luis Alberto de Herrera]], who had previously opposed the collegiate system.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-19 |title=Martínez Trueba, presidente con una reforma en la manga |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/informacion/politica/martinez-trueba-presidente-con-una-reforma-en-la-manga |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref> In 1951, a [[1951 Uruguayan constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] was held that approved the [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1952|1952 Constitution]], which established the [[National Council of Government (Uruguay)|National Council of Government]]. It was made up of six members from the winning party and three from the second party. Its first integration was a majority of the Colorado Party.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-26 |title=Nuevo triunfo de Luis Batlle Berres, esta vez con el colegiado |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/informacion/politica/nuevo-triunfo-de-luis-batlle-berres-esta-vez-con-el-colegiado |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref> Martínez Trueba completed his presidential term until 1955 as president of the body.<ref name=":7" />
In 1953, the [[Uruguayan Air Force]] was established as a separate branch of the National Army.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ley N° 12070 |url=https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes/12070-1953/1 |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=www.impo.com.uy}}</ref> In the [[1954 Uruguayan general election|1954 election]], the Colorado Party again obtained a majority in the [[National Council of Government (Uruguay)|National Council of Government]].<ref name="IF837">[https://legislativo.parlamento.gub.uy/OtrosDocumentos/EnciclopediaElectoral1900_2010.pdf Enciclopedia Electoral 1900–2010] Instituto Factum, p837</ref> In the period 1955–1959, the effects of an economic crisis —caused by the decrease in demand in the world market for agricultural products— worsened and there was an increase in the number of retirees and pensioners, in addition to an increase in the number of public employees, which led to popular discontent with the New Batllism model.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arregui |first=Miguel |title=El naufragio del neobatllismo |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/el-naufragio-del-neobatllismo-201844400 |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=El Observador}}</ref>
==Blanco collegiate executives era, 1958–66==
The National Party won the [[1958 Uruguayan general election|1958 election]] and became the ruling political group in the [[National Council of Government (Uruguay)|National Council of Government]]. The period of government was characterized by constant instability and weakness due to internal conflicts in the National Party between the [[Herrerism]], [[Ruralism (Uruguay)|Ruralism]] and the White Democratic Union factions—which was aggravated by the death of the party's leader, [[Luis Alberto de Herrera]].<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Eisenhower en Uruguay (5096971783).jpg|thumb|U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in [[Montevideo]], 1960]]
During the first Blanco collegiate term, a liberal and anti-protectionist economic policy was implemented. In 1959 the country was hit by [[1959 Uruguayan flood|severe floods]], which affected agricultural production and therefore the country's economy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Otros |title=Las inundaciones de 1959: el otro gran desastre natural que debió enfrentar el Partido Nacional en el gobierno |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/las-inundaciones-de-1959-el-otro-gran-desastre-natural-que-debio-enfrentar-el-partido-nacional-en-el-gobierno-202041214150 |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=El Observador}}</ref> In 1960, a letter of intent was signed with the [[International Monetary Fund]], which sought a loan of 300 million dollars to finance agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-23 |title=Uruguay y el FMI, una vez más {{!}} La Mañana |url=https://www.xn--lamaana-7za.uy/opinion/uruguay-y-el-fmi-una-vez-mas/ |access-date=2024-02-08 |language=es}}</ref>
The
==Growing instability, 1966–73==
In the early 1960s, social discontent due to the economic crisis that had worsened and union agitation increased, which led to the implementation of {{Language with name/for|es|Medidas Prontas de Seguridad|Prompt Security Measures}}, which are powers established by the [[Constitution of Uruguay|Uruguayan Constitution]] that enable the Government to temporarily suspend certain constitutional guarantees in the event of serious and unforeseen cases of external attack or internal commotion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Otros |title=Las inundaciones de 1959: el otro gran desastre natural que debió enfrentar el Partido Nacional en el gobierno |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/las-inundaciones-de-1959-el-otro-gran-desastre-natural-que-debio-enfrentar-el-partido-nacional-en-el-gobierno-202041214150 |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=El Observador}}</ref> Likewise, the far-left guerrilla group [[Tupamaros|National Liberation Movement – Tupamaros]] emerged, which began to carry out weapons thefts, bomb attacks on government officials and military officers, and kidnappings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Otros |title=Tupamaros (1): el origen |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/tupamaros-1-el-origen-2020101621310 |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=El Observador}}</ref>
In the [[1966 Uruguayan general election|1966 election]], [[Óscar Diego Gestido]] was elected president, which meant the return of the [[Colorado Party (Uruguay)|Colorado Party]] to the [[Estévez Palace]]. A [[Constitution of Uruguay of 1967|constitutional referendum]] removed the National
[[File:FokkerAnde1972.jpg|thumb|Replica of the [[Uruguayan Air Force]] plane that crashed on October 13, 1972, with 45 Uruguayans on board and gave rise to the so-called ''[[Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571|miracle of the Andes]]'']]
During the presidency of Pacheco Areco, student mobilization became widespread, in August 1968 during a demonstration against raids on university centers, the student [[Líber Arce]] was killed by police forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-08-14 |title=Los estudiantes recuerdan a sus mártires y muerte de Líber Arce |url=https://www.lr21.com.uy/politica/326255-los-estudiantes-recuerdan-a-sus-martires-y-muerte-de-liber-arce |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=LARED21 |language=es}}</ref> In June President Pacheco Areco had implemented {{Language with name/for|es|Medidas Prontas de Seguridad|Prompt Security Measures}}.<ref name=":2" /> In addition, the activity of the far-left guerrilla group ''[[Tupamaros]]'' increased, which was led by [[Raúl Sendic|Raúl Sendic Antonaccio]], who years ago had organized the sugarcane workers' marches from [[Bella Unión]] to Montevideo.<ref name=":0" /> In the early 1970s, the group began carrying out more assassinations and kidnappings, including that of the [[List of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Uruguay|British ambassador to Uruguay]], [[Geoffrey Jackson]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-01-01 |title=Heath's secret deal to free ambassador |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1380038/Heaths-secret-deal-to-free-ambassador.html |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=The Telegraph |language=en}}</ref> and [[Dan Mitrione]], a CIA agent who collaborated with the [[National Police of Uruguay|National Police]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-03 |title=Así mataron a Dan Mitrione |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/opinion/asi-mataron-a-dan-mitrione |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}</ref>
In September 1971, two months before the general election, 106 prisoners belonging to ''Tupamaros'' escaped from the penitentiary of the [[Punta Carretas]] neighborhood of Montevideo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cecchini |first=Por Eduardo AnguitayDaniel |date=2020-02-15 |title=La espectacular fuga de
==Military dictatorship, 1973–1985==
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Bordaberry was finally removed from his "president charge" in 1976. He was first succeeded by [[Alberto Demicheli]]. Subsequently, a national council chosen by the military government elected [[Aparicio Méndez]]. In 1980, in order to legitimize their position, the armed forces proposed a change in the constitution, to be subjected to a [[1980 Uruguayan constitutional referendum|popular vote by a referendum]]. The "No" votes against the constitutional changes totaled 57.2 percent of the turnout, showing the unpopularity of the ''de facto'' government that was later accelerated by an economic crisis.
In 1981, General [[Gregorio Conrado Álvarez|Gregorio Álvarez]] assumed the presidency. In 1982 primary elections in the political parties were held and in 1983 there began to be greater dialogue between the military junta and the political authorities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Arregui |first=Miguel |title=Las cruciales internas de 1982 y la apertura democrática |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/las-cruciales-internas-de-1982-y-la-apertura-democratica-201961910254 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231112191342/https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/las-cruciales-internas-de-1982-y-la-apertura-democratica-201961910254 |archive-date=2023-11-12 |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=El Observador}}</ref> In November, after the negotiations were canceled due to lack of agreement, a [[1983 Uruguayan pro-democracy demonstration|massive demonstration]] was held at the [[Obelisk of Montevideo|Obelisk of the Constituents]] in Montevideo, to demand a democratic transition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Redacción |title=Leé un adelanto del libro "Un río de Libertad", a 40 años del acto del Obelisco |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/lee-un-adelanto-del-libro-un-rio-de-libertad-a-40-anos-del-acto-del-obelisco-2023112791549 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127133538/https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/lee-un-adelanto-del-libro-un-rio-de-libertad-a-40-anos-del-acto-del-obelisco-2023112791549 |archive-date=2023-11-27 |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=El Observador}}</ref> From July to August 1984, talks were held that led to the [[Naval Club Pact]], in which the path to the return to civil rule was outlined.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reuniones Cívico-Militares |url=https://clubnaval.com.uy/home/sobre-el-club-naval/reuniones-civico-militares/ |url-status=live |archive-url=
A [[1984 Uruguayan general election|general election]] was held later in 1984. [[Colorado Party (Uruguay)|Colorado Party]] leader [[Julio María Sanguinetti]] won the presidency and, following the brief interim Presidency of [[Rafael Addiego Bruno]], served from 1985 to 1990. The first Sanguinetti administration implemented economic reforms and consolidated democratization following the country's years under military rule. Nonetheless, Sanguinetti never supported the human rights violations accusations, and his government did not prosecute the military officials who engaged in repression and torture against either the Tupamaros or the MLN. Instead, he opted for signing an amnesty treaty called in Spanish "Ley de Amnistia".
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==Recent history==
[[File:Montevideo Décembre 2007 - Plaza de Armas 2.jpg|thumb|800px|center|Modern [[Montevideo]]]]
Sanguinetti's economic reforms, focusing on the attraction of foreign trade and capital, achieved some success and stabilized the economy. In order to promote national reconciliation and facilitate the return of democratic civilian rule, Sanguinetti secured public approval by plebiscite of a controversial general amnesty for military leaders accused of committing human rights violations under the military regime and sped the release of former guerrillas.
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Batlle's five-year term was marked by economic recession and uncertainty, first with the 1999 devaluation of the [[Brazilian real]], then with the outbreaks of [[foot-and-mouth disease]] (aftosa) in Uruguay's key beef sector in 2001, and finally with the political and economic collapse of Argentina. Unemployment rose to close to 20 percent, real wages fell, the peso was devalued, and the percentage of Uruguayans in poverty reached almost 40 percent.
These worsening economic conditions played a part in turning public opinion against the [[free market]] economic policies adopted by the Batlle administration and its predecessors, leading to popular rejection through [[plebiscite]]s of proposals for [[privatization]] of the state petroleum company in 2003 and of the state water company in 2004.
In 1989, elections were held in Montevideo which saw the candidate of the Broad Front, Tabaré Vázquez, elected mayor of Montevideo. Vasquez would go on to hold the post of mayor from 1990 to 1994. The victory of the Broad Front was arguably the result of long-standing social problems, with one observer noting "The combination of economic crisis, military dictatorship and neoliberal policies had led to a drop in living standards and social equality as well as a decrease in social spending and urban services. The social safety net that had once made Uruguay a model welfare state was badly frayed, and government, from garbage collection to mass transport, no longer worked well. Added to these traumas was the trial of dealing with a municipal bureaucracy notorious for its arrogance and inefficiency. Paying one's taxes or filling out a forin could take hours; securing services from the centralized municipal government could take years." The Frente Amplio promised to tackle these problems, creating a municipal government that was efficient, efficacious and responsive, services that were modern and affordable, and a city whose financial burdens and economic benefits were more equitably distributed. The political subtext was clear. If the Frente Amplio could turn Montevideo around in so dramatic a fashion, it would be in a position to mount a serious challenge for national power, and Vázquez would become a credible presidential candidate. During the time the Broad Front governed Montevideo, a range of social initiatives were carried out. New street lights were installed, while housing construction was promoted by giving municipal lands to communities "for cooperative self-built residential housing, and by funding the rental of construction machinery and contributing materials at low prices which are repaid through long-term loans from the public Banco Hipotecario or foreign non-governmental organizations (NGOs)". More land titles were given to squatters than any previous administration, and a construction-materials "bank" was established to help people improve their housing. Public-vaccination plans were also expanded and an eye-care and clinic plan was initiated, though not fully implemented, while distribution of subsidized milk was tripled and free milk provided for institutional daytime snacks. In addition, the burden of subsidizing students and the elderly from other bus riders through higher fares was shifted to the municipality through direct subsidies to the bus companies.<ref>
In 2004, Uruguayans elected Tabaré Vázquez as president, while giving the Broad Front coalition a majority in both houses of parliament.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/01/world/americas/uruguays-left-makes-history-by-winning-presidential-vote.html|title=Uruguay's Left Makes History by Winning Presidential Vote|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 2004|last1=Rohter|first1=Larry}}</ref> The newly elected government, while pledging to continue payments on Uruguay's external debt, also promised to undertake a crash jobs programs to attack the widespread problems of poverty and unemployment.
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[[File:Actividades conmemorativas de las Instrucciones Año XIII 22.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|2011 bicentennial celebrations at the [[Palacio Legislativo (Uruguay)|Palacio Legislativo]] in Montevideo]]
In 2009, former Tupamaro and agriculture minister, [[José Mujica]], was [[2009 Uruguayan general election|elected]] president, subsequently succeeding Vázquez on 1 March 2010.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Moffett|first=Matt|date=2009-11-30|title=In Uruguay, Ex-Militant Mujica Is Elected|language=en-US|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125947900254668229|access-date=2021-04-02|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> [[Abortion in Uruguay|Abortion]] was legalized in 2012,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-19986107|title = Uruguay legalises abortion|work = BBC News|date = 17 October 2012}}</ref> followed by [[Same-sex marriage in Uruguay|same-sex marriage]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-23571197|title = Same-sex marriage bill comes into force in Uruguay|work = BBC News|date = 5 August 2013}}</ref> and [[Legality of cannabis in Uruguay|cannabis]] in the following year.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-47785648|title=Uruguay: The world's marijuana pioneer|work=BBC News|date=3 April 2019}}</ref> A number of other reforms were carried out during the Broad Front's time in office in areas like social security,<ref>
The number of trade union activists has quadrupled since 2003, from 110,000 to over 400,000 in 2015 for a working population of 1.5 million people. According to the International Trade Union Confederation, Uruguay has become the most advanced country in the Americas in terms of respect for "fundamental labour rights, in particular freedom of association, the right to collective bargaining and the right to strike".
In November 2014, former president Tabaré Vázquez defeated center-right opposition candidate [[Luis Lacalle Pou]] in the [[2014 Uruguayan general election|presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-uruguay-election-idUSKCN0JE04C20141130|title = Uruguayan ruling party's Vazquez wins presidential election|newspaper = Reuters|date = 30 November 2014|last1 = Farat|first1 = Malena Castaldi}}</ref> On 1 March 2015,
In November 2019, conservative Luis Lacalle Pou won the [[2019 Uruguayan general election|election]], bringing the end to 15 years of leftist rule of Broad Front. On 1 March 2020, Luis Lacalle Pou, the son of former president Luis Alberto Lacalle, was sworn in as the new President of Uruguay.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Werner|first=Fabian|date=1 March 2020|title=Uruguay Presidential Inauguration Sees Latin 'Pink Tide' Recede Further|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2020-03-01/uruguay-presidential-inauguration-sees-latin-pink-tide-recede-further|website=U.S. News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-01|title=Uruguay's new center-right president sworn in|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200301-uruguay-s-new-center-right-president-sworn-in|access-date=2022-02-09|website=France 24|language=en}}</ref>
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{{Portal|Latin America|History}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[History of Argentina]]
* [[History of Brazil]]
* [[List of presidents of Uruguay]]
* [[List of Uruguayan historians]]
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==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |title=Uruguay. The Bradt Travel Guide |last=Burford |first=Tim |date=January 2014 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides Ltd |location=Chalfont St Peter, Bucks |isbn=978-1-84162-477-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9eYBAAAQBAJ|edition=2nd }}
* Cameselle-Pesce, Pedro; Sharnak, Debbie, eds. (2024) ''Uruguay in Transnational Perspective'' (Routledge, 2024) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=60445 scholarly online book review]
* {{cite journal |last1=Duyne Barenstein |first1=Jennifer |last2=Pfister |first2=Michael |title=The Professionalization of a Social Movement: Housing Cooperatives in Uruguay |journal=Built Environment |date=2019 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=382–397 |doi=10.2148/benv.45.3.382|s2cid=202304777 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Political Economy of Uruguay since 1870 |last=Finch |first=M. H. J. |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |year=1981 |isbn=978-03126-22442}}
* {{cite journal |title=Gauchos, Gringos and Gallegos: The Assimilation of Italian and Spanish Immigrants in the Making of Modern Uruguay (1880–1930) |last=Goebel |first=Michael |journal=Past and Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=August 2010 |
* {{cite book |title=Cultures of the World – Uruguay |last=Jermyn |first=Leslie |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |location=Tarrytown, New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-7614-0873-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/uruguay00jerm }}
* {{cite book |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft567nb3f6&chunk.id=d0e9182&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e9182&brand=ucpress |title=Why Not Corporatism? Re-democratisation and Regime Formation in Uruguay |work=Latin America in the 1940s (Chapter 8) |last1=López-Alves |first1=Fernando |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |year=1994 |pages=187–206}}
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* {{cite book |title=Latin America's Wars (Volume 1): The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899 |last=Scheina |first=Robert L. |publisher=Potomac Books, Inc. |location=Dulles, Virginia |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57488-450-0}}
* {{cite book |title=Uruguay: The Politics of Failure |last=Weinstein |first=Martin |publisher=Praeger Publishing |location=Santa Barbara, California |year=1975 |isbn=978-08371-78455 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/uruguaypoliticso0000wein }}
==External links==
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