History of the United Kingdom: Difference between revisions

The '''history of the United Kingdom''' beganbegins in the early eighteenth century1707 with the [[Treaty of Union]] and [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]]. The core of the [[United Kingdom]] as a unified state came into being in 1707 with the [[political union]] of the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=New Act of Union would strengthen UK, says Fabricant |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-23919439 |access-date=1 September 2013}}</ref> into a new unitary state called [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]].{{Efn|The terms ''One Kingdom'', ''United Kingdom'' and ''United Kingdom of Great Britain'' were used as descriptions in the [[Treaty of Union]] and the [[Acts of Union 1707]]. However, the actual name of the new state was ''Great Britain''. The name ''Great Britain'' (then sometimes spelled ''Great Brittaine'') was first used by James VI/I in October 1604, who indicated that henceforth he and his successors would be viewed as Kings of Great Britain, not Kings of England and Scotland. However the name was not applied to a new ''state''; both England and Scotland continued to be governed independently. Its validity as a name of the Crown is also questioned, given that monarchs continued using separate ordinals (e.g., James VI/I, James VII/II) in England and Scotland. To avoid confusion historians generally avoid using the term ''King of Great Britain'' until 1707 and instead to match the ordinal usage call the monarchs kings or queens of England and Scotland. Separate ordinals were abandoned when the two states merged in accordance with the [[Acts of Union 1707]], with subsequent monarchs using ordinals clearly based on English not Scottish history (it might be argued that the monarchs have simply taken the higher ordinal, which to date has always been English). One example is Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]], who is referred to as being "the Second" even though there never was an Elizabeth I of Scotland or Great Britain. Thus the term ''Great Britain'' is generally used from 1707.}} Of this new [[State (polity)|state]] of Great Britain, the historian [[Simon Schama]] said:

The [[ActActs of Union 1800]] added the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] to create the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]].

The first decades were marked by [[Jacobite risings]] which ended with defeat for the Stuart cause at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746. In 1763, [[Great Britain in the Seven Years' War|victory in the Seven Years' War]] led to the growth of the [[First British Empire]]. With defeat by the [[United States]], [[France]] and [[Spain]] in the [[American Revolutionary War|War of American Independence]], Great Britain lost its 13 American colonies and rebuilt a [[Second British Empire]] based in Asia and Africa. As a result, [[culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]], and its technological, political, constitutional, and linguistic influence, became worldwide. Politically the central event was the [[French Revolution]] and its Napoleonic aftermath from 1793 to 1815, which British elites saw as a profound threat, and worked energetically to form multiple coalitions that finally defeated Napoleon in 1815. The [[Tories (British political party)|Tories]], who came to power in 1783, remained in power (with a short interruption) until 1830. Forces of reform, often emanating from the Evangelical religious elements, opened decades of political reform that broadened the ballot, and opened the economy to free trade. The outstanding political leaders of the 19th century included [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Palmerston]], [[Benjamin Disraeli|Disraeli]], [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]], and [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Salisbury]]. Culturally, the [[Victorian era]] was a time of prosperity and dominant middle-class virtues when Britain dominated the world economy and [[Pax Britannica|maintained a generally peaceful century]] from 1815 to 1914. The [[First World War]] (1914–1918), with Britain in alliance with France, [[Russia]] and the United States, was a furious but ultimately successful total war with [[Germany]]. The resulting [[League of Nations]] was a favourite project in [[Interwar Britain]]. However, while the Empire remained strong, as did the [[London Stock Exchange|London financial markets]], the British industrial base began to slip behind Germany and, especially, the United States. Sentiments for peace were so strong that the nation supported appeasement of [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s Germany in the late 1930s, until the Nazi invasion of [[Poland]] in 1939 started the [[Second World War]]. In the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the US joined the UK as [[Allies of World War II|the main Allied powers]].

In 1922, 26 counties of Ireland seceded to become the [[Irish Free State]]; a day later, [[Northern Ireland]] seceded from the Free State and returned to the United Kingdom. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its formal title to the ''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 March 2022 |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> usually shortened to ''[[Terminology of the British Isles (terminology)|Britain]]'' and (after 1945) to the ''United Kingdom'' or ''UK''.

The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] came into being on 1 May 1707, as a result of the [[political union]] of the [[Kingdom of England]] (which included [[Wales]]) and the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] under the [[Treaty of Union]]. This combined the two kingdoms into a single kingdom and merged the two parliaments into a single [[parliament of Great Britain]]. [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] became the first monarch of the new Great Britain. Although now a single kingdom, certain institutions of Scotland and England remained separate, such as [[Scots Lawlaw|Scottish]] and [[English law]]; and the [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] [[Church of Scotland]] and the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[Church of England]]. England and Scotland each also continued to have their own system of education.

Meanwhile, the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] against France (1701–1714) was underway. It see-sawed back and forth until a more peace-minded government came to power in London and the treaties of [[TreatyPeace of Utrecht|Utrecht]] and [[Treaty of Rastatt|Rastadt]] ended the war. British historian [[G. M. Trevelyan]] argues: {{Blockquote|That [[Treaty of Utrecht|Treaty [of Utrecht]]], which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large,—the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trevelyan |first=G.M. |title=A shortened history of England |date=1942 |page=363 |author-link=G. M. Trevelyan}}</ref>}}

[[George II of Great Britain|George II]] enhanced the stability of the constitutional system, with a government run by [[Robert Walpole]] during the period 1730–1742.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Black |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian) |date=February 2003 |title=Georges I & II |journal=History Today |volume=53 |issue=2}}</ref> He built up the [[First British Empire]], strengthening the colonies in the Caribbean and North America. In coalition with the rising power Prussia, the United Kingdom defeated France in the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763), and won full control of Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Andrew C. |title=George II: King and Elector |date=2011}}</ref>

[[George III]] never visited Hanover, and spoke English as his first language. Reviled by Americans as a tyrant and the instigator of the American War of Independence, he was insane off and on after 1788, and his eldest son served as regent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |title=George III: America's Last King |date=2006 |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)}}</ref> He was the last king to dominate government and politics, and his long reign is noted for losing the first British Empire in the [[American Revolutionary War]] (1783), as France sought revenge for its defeat in the Seven Years' War by aiding the Americans.<ref>See {{Cite journal |last=Black |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian) |date=Fall 1996 |title=Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence? |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1811/30022 |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=74 |issue=299 |pages=145–154 |jstor=44225322|hdl=1811/30022 }} (90-minute video lecture given at Ohio State in 2006)</ref> The reign was notable for the building of a second empire based in India, Asia and Africa, the beginnings of the industrial revolution that made Britain an economic powerhouse, and above all the life and death struggle with the French, in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] 1793–1802, which ended inconclusively with a short truce, and the epic [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1803–1815), which ended with the decisive defeat of [[Napoleon]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=J. Steven |title=The Reign of George III, 1760–1815 |date=1960 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0198217138 |edition=1st}}</ref>

Entrepreneurs gradually extended the range of their business around the globe. The [[South Sea Bubble]] was a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. The South Sea Company was a joint-stock company in London. Its ostensible object was to grant trade monopolies in South America; but its actual purpose was to renegotiate previous high-interest government loans amounting to £31&nbsp; million through [[market manipulation]] and speculation. It raised money four times in 1720 by issuing stock, which was purchased by about 8,000 investors. The share price kept soaring every day, from £130 a share to £1,000, with insiders making huge paper profits. The Bubble collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes had reached into high places—even to the king. [[Robert Walpole]] managed to wind it down with minimal political and economic damage, although some losers fled to exile or committed suicide.<ref>{{Harvp|Hoppit|2000|pages=334–338}}; {{Cite journal |last=Hoppit |first=Julian |title=The Myths of the South Sea Bubble |date=December 1962 |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume=12 |pages=141–165 |doi=10.1017/S0080440102000051 |jstor=3679343 |issue=1|doi-broken-date=18 August 2024 |s2cid=162577865 }}</ref>

Robert Walpole is now generally regarded as the first Prime Minister, from, 1719–17421721–1742, and indeed he invented the role.{{Dubious|date=September 2018}} The term was applied to him by friends and foes alike by 1727. Historian Clayton Roberts summarizes his new functions:

Hypocrisy became a major topic in English political history in the early 18th century. The [[Toleration Act 16891688]] allowed for certain rights for religious minorities, but Protestant [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|Nonconformists]] (such as Congregationalists and Baptists) were still deprived of important rights, such as the right to hold office. Nonconformists who wanted to hold office ostentatiously took the Anglican sacrament once a year in order to avoid the restrictions. High Church Anglicans were outraged. They outlawed what they called "occasional conformity" in 1711 with the [[Occasional Conformity Act 1711]].<ref>{{Cite bookjournal |last=Jones |first=Clyve |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-0206.2011.00276.x |title='Too Wild to Succeed': The Occasional Conformity Bills and the Attempts by the House of Lords to Outlaw the Tack in the Reign of Anne |date=2011 |workjournal=Parliamentary History |volume=30 |pages=414–427 |issue=3|doi=10.1111/j.1750-0206.2011.00276.x }}</ref> In the political controversies using sermons, speeches, and pamphlet wars, both high churchmen and Nonconformists attacked their opponents as insincere and hypocritical, as well as dangerously zealous, in contrast to their own moderation. This campaign of moderation versus zealotry peaked in 1709 during the impeachment trial of high church preacher [[Henry Sacheverell]]. Historian Mark Knights argues that by its very ferocity, the debate may have led to more temperate and less hypercharged political discourse. "Occasional conformity" was restored by the Whigs when they returned to power in 1719.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knights |first=Mark |date=2005 |title=Occasional conformity and the representation of dissent: hypocrisy, sincerity, moderation and zeal |journal=Parliamentary History |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–57|doi=10.1111/j.1750-0206.2005.tb00401.x }}</ref>

English author [[Bernard Mandeville]]'s famous "[[The Fable of the Bees]]" (1714) explored the nature of hypocrisy in contemporary European society. On one hand, Mandeville was a "moralist" heir to the French Augustinianism of the previous century, viewing sociability as a mere mask for vanity and pride. On the other, he was a "materialist" who helped found modern economics. He tried to demonstrate the universality of human appetites for corporeal pleasures. He argued that the efforts of self-seeking entrepreneurs are the basis of emerging commercial and industrial society, a line of thought that influenced [[Adam Smith]] and 19th-century [[Utilitarianism]]. A tension arose between these two approaches concerning the relative power of norms and interests, the relationship between motives and behaviour, and the historical variability of human cultures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luban |first=Daniel |date=2015 |title=Bernard Mandeville as Moralist and Materialist |journal=History of European Ideas |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=831–857|doi=10.1080/01916599.2015.1010777 |s2cid=145179618 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:beb92369-f940-4053-935e-0e2eaf50936a }}</ref>

From around 1750 to 1850, Whig aristocrats in England boasted of their special benevolence for the common people. They claimed to be guiding and counselling reform initiatives to prevent the outbreaks of popular discontent that caused instability and revolution across Europe. However Tory and radical critics accused the Whigs of hypocrisy—alleging they were deliberately using the slogans of reform and democracy to boost themselves into power while preserving their precious aristocratic exclusiveness. Historian L.G. Mitchell defends the Whigs, pointing out that thanks to them radicals always had friends at the centre of the political elite, and thus did not feel as marginalised as in most of Europe. He points out that the debates on the 1832 Reform Bill showed that reformers would indeed receive a hearing at parliamentary level with a good chance of success.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=L.G. |date=1999 |title=The Whigs, the People, and Reform |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=85 |pages=25–41}}</ref> Meanwhile, a steady stream of observers from the Continent commented on the English political culture. Liberal and radical observers noted the servility of the English lower classes in the early 19th century, the obsession everyone had with rank and title, the extravagance of the aristocracy, and a pervasive hypocrisy that extended into such areas as social reform. There were not so many conservative visitors. They praised the stability of English society, its ancient constitution, and reverence for the past; they ignored the negative effects of industrialisation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Langford |first=Paul |title=TheProceedings Englishof asthe Reformers:British Foreign Visitors' Impressions, 1750–1850Academy |date=1999 |workisbn=Proceedings of the British Academy0197262015 |volume=85 |pages=101–119 |chapter=The English as Reformers: Foreign Visitors' Impressions, 1750–1850 |chapter-url=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/3836/100p101.pdf}}</ref>

The [[French Revolution]] polarised British political opinion in the 1790s, with conservatives outraged at the killing of the king, the expulsion of the nobles, and the [[Reign of Terror]]. Britain was at war against France almost continuously from 1793 until the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Conservatives castigated every radical opinion in Britain as "Jacobin" (in reference to the [[JacobinJacobins|leaders of the Terror]]), warning that radicalism threatened an upheaval of British society. The Anti-Jacobin sentiment, well expressed by [[Edmund Burke]] and [[Anti-Jacobin|many popular writers]] was strongest among the landed gentry and the upper classes.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=2006 |editor-last=Fremont-Barnes |editor-first=Gregory |volume=1 |pages=41–42}}</ref>

The [[Seven Years' War]], which began in 1756, was the first war waged on a global scale, fought in Europe, India, North America, the Caribbean, the Philippines and coastal Africa. Britain was the big winner as it enlarged its empire at the expense of France and others. France lost its role as a colonial power in North America. It ceded [[New France]] to Britain, putting a large, traditionalistic French-speaking Catholic element under British control. Spain ceded [[Florida]] to Britain, but it only had a few small outposts there. In India, the [[Carnatic Warswars#Third Carnatic War (1756–17631757–1763)|Carnatic Warwar]] had left France still in control of its [[French India|small enclaves]] but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, effectively leaving the future of India to Britain. [[Great Britain in the Seven Years' War|The British victory over France]] in the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's dominant colonial power.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jasanoff |first=Maya |title=Edge of Empire: Lives, Culture, and Conquest in the East, 1750–1850 |date=2006 |isbn=978-1-40-007546-1 |page=21 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |author-link=Maya Jasanoff |orig-date=2005}}</ref>

The loss of the Thirteen Colonies, at the time Britain's most populous colonies, marked the transition between the "first" and "second" empires,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Low |first1=Alaine |title=[[The Oxford History of the British Empire]] |last2=Louis |first2=Wm Roger |date=1998 |editor-last=Canny |editor-first=Nicholas |editor-link=Nicholas Canny |volume=1. The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century |pages=92 |author-link2=Wm. Roger Louis}}</ref> in which Britain shifted its attention to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that [[free trade]] should replace the old [[mercantilist]] policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783<ref>{{Cite book |last=James |first=Lawrence |title=The Rise and Fall of the British Empire |date=2001 |isbn=978-1-46-684213-7 |pages=119 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing |orig-date=1994}}</ref> confirmed Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.

During its first 100 years of operation, the focus of the [[British East India Company]] had been trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the British East India Company struggled with its French counterpart, the ''[[French East India Company|La Compagnie française des Indes orientales]]'', during the [[Carnatic Warswars]] of the 1740s and 1750s. The British, led by [[Robert Clive]], defeated the French and their Indian allies in the [[Battle of Plassey]], leaving the Company in control of [[Bengal]] and a major military and political power in India. In the following decades it gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or indirectly via local puppet rulers under the threat of force of the [[Indian Army]], 80% of which was composed of native Indian [[sepoys]].

On 22 August 1770, [[James Cook]] discovered the eastern coast of Australia<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knibbs |first=G. H. |title=Official year book of the Commonwealth of Australia |date=1908 |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics|Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics]] |page=52 |author-link=George Handley Knibbs}}</ref> while on a scientific [[First voyage of James Cook|voyage]] to the South Pacific. In 1778, [[Joseph Banks]], Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of [[Botany Bay]] for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of [[ConvictismConvicts in Australia|convicts]] set sail, arriving in 1788.

Under the terms of the merger, the separate Parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland were abolished, and replaced by a united [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. Ireland thus became an integral part of the United Kingdom, sending around 100 MPs to the House of Commons at Westminster and 28 [[List of Irish representative peers|Irish representative peer]]s to the House of Lords, elected from among their number by the Irish peers themselves, except that Roman Catholic peers were not permitted to take their seats in the Lords. Part of the trade-off for the Irish Catholics was to be the granting of [[Catholic Emancipationemancipation]], which had been fiercely resisted by the all-Anglican Irish Parliament. However, this was blocked by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]], who argued that emancipating the Roman Catholics would breach his [[Coronation Oath]]. The Roman Catholic hierarchy had endorsed the Union. However the decision to block Catholic Emancipation fatally undermined the appeal of the Union.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Acts of Union: The causes, contexts, and consequences of the Act of Union |date=2001 |publisher=Four Courts Press |editor-last=Keogh |editor-first=Dáire |editor-last2=Whelan |editor-first2=Kevin}}</ref>

A key element in British success was its ability to mobilize the nation's industrial and financial resources and apply them to defeating France. With a population of 16 million Britain was barely half the size of France with 30&nbsp; million. In terms of soldiers the French numerical advantage was offset by British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of the Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000 in 1813.<ref>{{Harvp|Kennedy|1989|page=128–129}}.</ref> Most important, the British national output remained strong and the well-organized business sector channeled products into what the military needed. The system of smuggling finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets. The British budget in 1814 reached £66&nbsp; million, including £10&nbsp; million for the Navy, £40&nbsp; million for the Army, £10&nbsp; million for the Allies, and £38&nbsp; million as interest on the national debt. The national debt soared to £679&nbsp; million, more than double the GDP. It was willingly supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax payers, despite the higher taxes on land and a new income tax. The whole cost of the war came to £831&nbsp; million. By contrast the French financial system was inadequate and Napoleon's forces had to rely in part on requisitions from conquered lands.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halevy |first=Elie |title=A History of the English People in 1815 |date=1924 |volume=2 |pages=205–206, 215–228}}; {{Citation |last=Knight |first=Roger |title=Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisation of Victory, 1793–1815 |date=2013}}; {{Harvp|Watson|1960|pages=374–377, 406–407, 463–471}}.</ref>

The postwar era was a time of economic depression, poor harvests, growing inflation, and high unemployment among returning soldiers. As industrialisation progressed, Britain was more urban and less rural, and power shifted accordingly.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Briggs |first=Asa |title=The Age of Improvement, 1783–1867 |date=1959 |author-link=Asa Briggs}}</ref> The dominant Tory leadership, based in the declining rural sector, was fearful, reactionary and repressive. Tories feared the possible emergence of radicals who might be conspiring to emulate the dreaded [[French Revolution]]. In reality the violent radical element was small and weak; there were a handful of small conspiracies involving men with few followers and careless security; they were quickly suppressed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Eric J. |title=Britain Before the Reform Act: Politics and Society 1815–1832 |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-13-481603-3 |edition=2nd |pages=1–27 |publisher=Routledge |author-link=Eric J. Evans}}</ref> Techniques of repression included the suspension of Habeas Corpus in 1817 (allowing the government to arrest and hold suspects without cause or trial). Sidmouth's [[Gagging Acts]] of 1817 heavily muzzled the opposition newspapers; the reformers switched to pamphlets and sold 50,000 a week. In reaction to the [[Peterloo massacreMassacre]] of 1819, the Liverpool government passed the "[[Six Acts]]" in 1819. They prohibited drills and military exercises; facilitated warrants for the search for weapons; outlawed public meetings of more than 50 people, including meetings to organize petitions; put heavy penalties on blasphemous and seditious publications; imposing a fourpenny stamp act on many pamphlets to cut down the flow on news and criticism. Offenders could be harshly punished including exile in Australia. In practice the laws were designed to deter troublemakers and reassure conservatives; they were not often used. By the end of the 1820s, along with a general economic recovery, many of these repressive laws were repealed and in 1828 new legislation guaranteed the civil rights of religious dissenters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ziegler |first=Philip |title=Addington |date=1965 |page=350}}</ref>

A[[George IV]] was a weak ruler as regent (1811–1820) and king (1820–1830),. [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]]He let his ministers take full charge of government affairs, playing a far lesser role than his father, George III. The principle now became established that the king accepts as prime minister the person who wins a majority in the House of Commons, whether the king personally favours him or not. His governments, with little help from the king, presided over victory in the Napoleonic Wars, negotiated the peace settlement, and attempted to deal with the social and economic malaise that followed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baker |first=Kenneth |date=2005 |title=George IV: a Sketch |journal=History Today |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=30–36}}</ref> His brother [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] ruled 1830 to 1837, but was little involved in politics. His reign saw several reforms: the [[poor law]] was updated, [[child labour]] restricted, [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|slavery abolished]] in nearly all the [[British Empire]], and, most important, the [[Reform Act 1832]] refashioned the British electoral system.<ref>[[Brock, Michael]] (2004) "William IV (1765–1837)", ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', (2004) {{doi|10.1093/ref:odnb/29451}}</ref>

The [[WhigWhigs (British political party)|Whig Party]] recovered its strength and unity by supporting moral reforms, especially the reform of the electoral system, the abolition of slavery and emancipation of the Catholics. [[Catholic emancipation]] was secured in the [[Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829]], which removed the most substantial restrictions on Roman Catholics in Britain.{{Sfnp|Woodward|1962|pages=325-330}}

[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] ascended the throne in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power. Exciting new technologies such as steam ships, railways, photography, and telegraphs appeared, making the world much faster-paced. Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics, and it was not affected by the wave of revolutions in 1848. The Victorian era saw the fleshing out of the second [[British Empire]]. Scholars debate whether the Victorian period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—actually begins with her coronation or the earlier passage of the [[Reform Act 1832]]. The era was preceded by the [[Georgian era]] and succeeded by the [[Edwardian periodera]].

During the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865), British leaders personally disliked American republicanism and favoured the more aristocratic [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]], as it had been a major source of cotton for textile mills, but the country never recognized the Confederacy and neither signed a treaty with it. [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] was effective in defusing a [[Trent Affair|war scare in late 1861]]. The British people, who depended heavily on American food imports, generally favoured the United States. What little cotton was available came from New York, as the blockade by the US Navy shut down 95% of Southern exports to Britain. In September 1862, Britain (along with France) contemplated stepping in and negotiating a peace settlement, which could only mean war with the United States. But in the same month, US president [[Abraham Lincoln]] announced the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] would be issued in January 1863 making abolition of slavery in the Confederacy a war goal. Since support of the Confederacy now meant support for slavery, there was no longer any possibility of European intervention. However, the British working class were quite overwhelmingly pro-Union. In the end, although Britain could survive without Southern cotton, the North's meat and grain was more important to feed the UK's urban population, especially as a series of bad harvests had affected British agriculture in the late 1850s to early 1860s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Foreman |first=Amanda |title=A World on Fire: Britain's Crucial Role in the American Civil War |date=2012 |publisher=Random House Publishing |isbn=978-0-37-575696-2 |author-link=Amanda Foreman (historian)}}</ref>

The rise of the [[German Empire]] after 1871 posed a new challenge, for it (along with the United States) threatened to take Britain's place as the world's foremost industrial power. Germany acquired a number of colonies in Africa and the Pacific, but Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] succeeded in achieving general peace through his balance of power strategy. When [[WilliamWilhelm II, German Emperor|William II]] became emperor in 1888, he discarded Bismarck, began using bellicose language, and planned to build a navy to rival Britain's.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A. J. P. |title=[[The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918|The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918]] |date=1953 |isbn=978-0-19-881270-8 |chapter=Bismark's Aliances, 1879–82 |publisher=Clarendon Press |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor}}</ref>

Ever since Britain had taken control of South Africa from the Netherlands in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it had run afoul of the Dutch settlers who further away and created two republics of their own. The British imperial vision called for control over the new countries and the Dutch-speaking "Boers" (or "[[Afrikaners]]") fought back in the [[Second Boer War|War in 1899–19021899]]. British historian [[Andrew Roberts, (historian)Baron Roberts of Belgravia|Andrew Roberts]] argues that the Boers insisted on keeping full control of both their two small republics, allowing no role whatever for nonwhites, and distinctly limited roles for British and other European settlers. These "[[Uitlander]]s" were the base of the economy, paid 80 per cent% of the taxes, and had no vote. The Transvaal was in no sense a democracy, argues Roberts, for no black, Briton, Catholic, or Jew was allowed to vote or hold any office. Johannesburg was the business centre, with 50,000 primarily British residents, but was not permitted any local government. The English language was banned in official proceedings; no public meetings were permitted; newspapers were closed down arbitrarily; and full citizenship was technically possible but quite rare. Roberts says President [[Paul Kruger]] "ran a tight, tough, quasi-police state from his state capital, Pretoria." The British government officially protested; while theoretically recognizing the Transvaal's right to manage its internal affairs, cabinet member [[Joseph Chamberlain]] detailed the many ways how Uitlanders were mistreated as second-class non-citizens, despite their essential role in producing prosperity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Andrew |title=A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900 |date=2008 |pages=27–29 |author-link=Andrew Roberts (historian)}}</ref>

The unexpectedly great difficulty in defeating the Boers forced a reevaluation of British policy. In military terms, it was clear that the Cardwell reforms had been inadequate. The call to establish a general staff to control military operations had been shelved by the [[Prince George, Duke of Cambridge|Duke of Cambridge]], himself a royal with enormous authority. It took a five more years to set up a general staff and other Army reforms, under the administration of [[Richard Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane|Lord Haldane]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morris |first=A.J. Anthony |author-link=A. J. A. Morris |date=1971 |title=Haldane's army reforms 1906–8: The Deception of the Radicals |journal=History |volume=56 |issue=186 |pages=17–34 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.1971.tb02006.x |jstor=24407144}}</ref> The Royal Navy was now threatened by Germany. Britain responded by a massive building programme launched in 1904 by the highly controversial [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|First Sea Lord, John Fisher]]. He launched {{HMS|Dreadnought|1906|6}} in 1906. It was the first modern battleship, based on new armour, new propulsion, new guns and gunnery that made all other warships obsolete.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lambert |first=Nicholas A. |title=Sir John Fisher's naval revolution |date=2002 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press}}</ref> The Boer War demonstrated that Britain was not loved around the world—it had more enemies than friends and its policy of "[[splendid isolation]]" was one of high risk. It needed new friends. It made a military alliance with Japan, and buried old controversies to forge a close relationship with the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webb |first=R.K. |title=Modern England: From the 18th Century to the Present |date=1980 |edition=2nd |pages=442–447 |author-link=Robert K. Webb}}</ref>

In the 1870s new moderate nationalist movement was formed. As the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] it became a major factor in parliament under [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. Home Rule Bills introduced by Liberal Prime Minister Gladstone failed of passage, and split the Liberals. A significant [[Irish Unionism in Ireland|unionist minority]] (largely based in [[Ulster]]), opposed Home Rule, fearing that a [[Rome Rule|Catholic-Nationalist]] parliament in Dublin would discriminate against them and would also hurt its industry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Alvin |title=Ireland 1798–1998: politics and war |date=1999 |author-link=Alvin Jackson (historian)}}</ref> Parliament passed laws in 1870, 1881, 1903 and 1909 that enabled most tenant farmers to purchase their lands, and lowered the rents of the others.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guinnane |first1=Timothy W. |last2=Miller |first2=Ronald I. |date=1997 |title=The Limits to Land Reform: The Land Acts in Ireland, 1870–1909 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/Guinnane_Miller_Limits_to_Land_Reform_EDCC1997.pdf |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=591–612 |doi=10.1086/452292 |hdl=10419/160647 |s2cid=17477539 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117223641/https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/Guinnane_Miller_Limits_to_Land_Reform_EDCC1997.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2015}}</ref>

Historically, the aristocracy was divided between Conservatives and Liberals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brock |first=M. G. |date=1953 |title=Politics at the Accession of Queen Victoria |journal=History Today |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=329–338}}</ref> However, when Gladstone committed to home rule for Ireland, Britain's upper classes largely abandoned the Liberal party, giving the Conservatives a large permanent majority in the House of Lords. High Society in London, following the Queen, largely ostracized home rulers, and Liberal clubs were badly split. [[Joseph Chamberlain]] took a major element of upper-class supporters out of the Party and into a third party, the [[Liberal Unionist]]s, which collaborated with and eventually merged into the Conservative party.<ref>{{Harvp|Ensor|1936|pages=206–207}}; {{Cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Peter |date=1962 |title=The Liberal Unionist Alliance: Chamberlain, Hartington, and the Conservatives, 1886–1904 |journal=English Historical Review |volume=77 |issue=302 |pages=53–78 |doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXVII.CCCII.53 |jstor=560866}}</ref> The Gladstonian liberals in 1891 adopted the [[The Newcastle Programme]] that included home rule for Ireland, disestablishment of the Church of England in Wales and Scotland, tighter controls on the sale of liquor, major extension of factory regulation, and various democratic political reforms. The Programme had a strong appeal to the Nonconformist middle-class Liberal element, which felt liberated by the departure of the aristocracy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cook |first=Chris |title=A Short History of the Liberal Party: The Road Back to Power |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-13-705607-8 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1p9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 24]–26}}</ref>

[[Benjamin Disraeli]] ([[PremiershipPremierships of Benjamin Disraeli|prime minister 1868 and 1874–1880]]) remains an iconic hero of the [[History of the British Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]. He played a central role in the creation of the Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach. Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal leader William Gladstone, and his [[one-nation conservatism]] or "Tory democracy". He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the [[British Empire]]. He was born into a Jewish family, which became Episcopalian when he was 12 years old.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blake |first=Robert |title=Disraeli |date=1967}}</ref>

In foreign policy he is best known for battling and besting Russia. Disraeli's second term was dominated by the [[Eastern Questionquestion]]—the slow decay of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the desire of Russia to gain at its expense. Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the [[Suez Company (1858–1997)|Suez Canal Company]] (in Ottoman-controlled Egypt). In 1878, faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he worked at the [[Congress of Berlin]] to maintain peace in the Balkans and made terms favourable to Britain which weakened Russia, its longstanding enemy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swartz |first=Marvin |title=The Politics of British Foreign Policy in the Era of Disraeli & Gladstone |date=1985}}</ref>

[[William Ewart Gladstone]] was the Liberal counterpart to Disraeli, serving as [[PremiershipPremierships of William Ewart Gladstone|prime minister four times (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886, and 1892–1894)]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Roy |title=Gladstone: A Biography |date=2002 |author-link=Roy Jenkins}}</ref> He was the moral compass of the Liberal Party and is famous for his oratory, his religiosity, his liberalism, his rivalry with Disraeli, and for his poor relations with the Queen. Although he personally was not a Nonconformist, and rather disliked them in person, he formed a coalition with the Nonconformists that gave the Liberals a powerful base of support.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Machin |first=G. I. T. |date=1974 |title=Gladstone and Nonconformity in the 1860s: The Formation of an Alliance |journal=Historical Journal |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=347–364 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X00007780 |jstor=2638302|s2cid=154524776 }}</ref>

Gladstone's first ministry saw many reforms including Disestablishment of the Protestant [[Church of Ireland]] and the introduction of [[Ballot Act 1872|secret voting]]. His party was defeated in 1874, but made a comeback based on opposition to the Ottoman Empire's [[Bulgarian atrocities]] against Christians. Gladstone's [[Midlothian Campaigncampaign]] of 1879–1880 was a pathbreaking introduction of many modern political campaigning techniques. His Liberal party was increasingly pulled apart on the Irish issue. He proposed Irish [[home rule]] in 1886; It failed to pass and the resulting split in the Liberal Party kept it out of office for most of the next 20 years.

==Early 20th century (1901–1918)==

Queen Victoria died in 1901 and her son [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] became king, inaugurating the Edwardian Era, which was characterised by great and ostentatious displays of wealth in contrast to the sombre Victorian Era. With the advent of the 20th century, things such as motion pictures, automobiles, and aeroplanes were coming into use. The new century was characterised by a feeling of great optimism. The social reforms of the last century continued into the 20th with the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] being formed in 1900. Edward died in 1910, to be succeeded by [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]], who reigned 1910–1936. Scandal-free, hard working and popular, George V was the British monarch who, with Queen Mary, established the modern pattern of exemplary conduct for British royalty, based on middle-class values and virtues. He understood the overseas Empire better than any of his prime ministers and used his exceptional memory for figures and details, whether of uniforms, politics, or relations, to good effect in reaching out in conversation with his subjects.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Matthew |first=H.C.G. |title=George V (1865–1936) |date=2004 |edition=January 2008 online |series=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |author-link=Colin Matthew}}</ref>

The era was prosperous but political crises were escalating out of control. [[George Dangerfield]] (1935) identified the "strange death of liberal England" as the multiple crisis that hit simultaneously in 1910–1914 with serious social and political instability arising from the Irish crisis, [[Great Labour Unrest|labour unrest]], the women's suffrage movements, and partisan and constitutional struggles in Parliament. At one point it even seemed the Army might refuse orders dealing with Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dangerfield |first=George |title=[[The Strange Death of Liberal England]] |date=1935 |author-link=George Dangerfield}}</ref> No solution appeared in sight when the unexpected outbreak of the Great War in 1914 put domestic issues on hold.

The stalemate required an endless supply of men and munitions. By 1916, volunteering fell off, the government imposed conscription in Britain (but not in Ireland) to keep up the strength of the [[British Army during the First World War I|Army]]. With his slow start and mobilization of national resources, H. H. Asquith had proven inadequate: he was more of a committee chairman, and he started to drink so heavily after midday that only his morning hours were effective.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Owen |first=David |title=The Hidden Perspective: The Military Conversations 1906–1914 |date=2014 |isbn=9781908323675 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k1crDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT78 115]–116 |publisher=Haus |quote=by modern diagnostic standards, Asquith became an alcoholic while Prime Minister. |author-link=David Owen}}</ref> Asquith was replaced in December 1916 with the much more effective [[David Lloyd George]]. He had strong support from Unionists and considerable backing of Labour, as well as a majority of his own Liberal Party, although Asquith turned hostile. Lloyd George answered the loud demands for a much more decisive government by setting up a new small war cabinet, a cabinet secretariat under [[Maurice Hankey, 1st Baron Hankey|Maurice Hankey]], and a secretariat of private advisors in the '[[The Garden Suburb|Garden Suburb]]'; he moved towards prime ministerial control.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth O. |date=2017 |title=7 December 1916: Asquith, Lloyd George and the Crisis of Liberalism |journal=Parliamentary History |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=361–371 |doi=10.1111/1750-0206.12318}}</ref>

Britain eagerly supported the war, but Irish Nationalist opinion was divided: some served in the British Army, but the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] plotted an [[Easter RebellionRising]] in 1916. It quickly failed but the brutal repression that followed turned that element against Britain, as did failed British plans to introduce conscription in Ireland in 1917.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Munck |first=Ronald |date=1986 |title=Rethinking Irish Nationalism: The Republican Dimension |journal=Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism |volume=14 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u7gjAQAAIAAJ 31–48]}}</ref>

At the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919(1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference of 1919]], Lloyd George, American President Woodrow Wilson and French premier Georges Clemenceau made all the major decisions. They formed the [[League of Nations]] as a mechanism to prevent future wars. They sliced up the losers to form new nations in Europe, and divided up the German colonies and Ottoman holdings outside Turkey. They imposed what appeared to be heavy financial reparations (but in the event were of modest size). They humiliated Germany by forcing it to declare its guilt for starting the war, a policy that caused deep resentment in Germany and helped fuel reactions such as Nazism. Britain gained the German colony of [[Tanganyika (territory)Territory|Tanganyika]] and part of [[Togoland]] in Africa, while its dominions added other colonies. Britain gained League of Nations mandates over Palestine, which had been partly promised as a homeland for Jewish settlers, and Iraq. Iraq became fully independent in 1932. Egypt, which had been a British protectorate since 1882, became independent in 1922, although the British remained there until 1952.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharp |first=Alan |title=The Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking after the First World War, 1919–1923 |date=2008 |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=9781137611390 |edition=2nd |ol=27841480M |orig-date=1991}}</ref>

In 1912 the House of Commons passed a new Home Rule bill. Under the [[Parliament Act 1911]] the House of Lords retained the power to delay legislation by up to two years, so it was eventually enacted as the [[Government of Ireland Act 1914]], but suspended for the duration of the war. Civil war threatened when the Protestant-Unionists of Northern Ireland refused to be placed under Catholic-Nationalist control. Semi-military units were formed ready to fight—the [[Irish Unionism in Ireland|Unionist]] [[Ulster Volunteers]] opposed to the Act and their Nationalist counterparts, the [[Irish Volunteers]] supporting the Act. The outbreak of the World War in 1914 put the crisis on political hold. A disorganized [[Easter Rising]] in 1916 was brutally suppressed by the British, which had the effect of galvanizing Nationalist demands for independence. Prime Minister Lloyd George failed to introduce Home Rule in 1918 and in the December 1918 General Election [[Sinn Féin]] won a majority of Irish seats. Its MPs refused to take their seats at Westminster, instead choosing to sit in the [[First Dáil]] parliament in Dublin. A declaration of independence was ratified by [[Dáil Éireann (Irish Republic)|Dáil Éireann]], the self-declared Republic's parliament in January 1919. An [[Anglo-Irish War]] was fought between Crown forces and the [[Irish Republican Army]] between January 1919 and June 1921. The war ended with the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] of December 1921 that established the [[Irish Free State]].<ref>{{Cite book |editor-first=Joost |editor-last=Augusteign |title=The Irish Revolution, 1913–1923 |publisher=Basingstoke |date=2002}}</ref> Six northern, predominantly Protestant counties became [[History of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] and have remained part of the United Kingdom ever since, despite demands of the Catholic minority to unite with the Republic of Ireland.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Thomas |last=Henessy |title=A History of Northern Ireland, 1920–1996 |date=1998}}</ref> Britain officially adopted the name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" by the [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]].

Romantic fiction was especially popular, with [[Mills and& Boon]] the leading publisher.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McAleer |first=Joseph |title=Passion's fortune: the story of Mills & Boon |date=1999}}</ref> Romantic encounters were embodied in a principle of sexual purity that demonstrated not only social conservatism, but also how heroines could control their personal autonomy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Humble |first=Nicola |title=The Feminine Middlebrow Novel, 1920s to 1950s: Class, Domesticity, and Bohemianism |date=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Light |first=Alison |title=Forever England: Femininity, Literature and Conservatism Between the Wars |date=1991 |author-link=Alison Light}}</ref> Adventure magazines became quite popular, especially those published by [[DC Thomson]]; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about. The story line in magazines and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Ernest Sackville |title=Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton et al. |date=1975 |edition=3rd |author-link=E.S. Turner}}</ref>

The [[Unemployment Insurance Act 1920]] passed at a time of very little unemployment. It set up the dole system that provided 39 weeks of unemployment benefits to practically the entire civilian working population except domestic service, farm workers, and civil servants. Funded in part by weekly contributions from both employers and employed, it provided weekly payments of 15s for unemployed men and 12s for unemployed women. Historian [[CharlesC. L. Mowat]] calls these two laws "Socialism by the back door", and notes how surprised politicians were when the costs to the Treasury soared during the high unemployment of 1921.{{Sfnp|Mowat|1955|pp=43–46}}

The [[Lloyd George ministry]] fell apart in 1922. [[Stanley Baldwin]], as leader of the Conservative Party (1923–1937) and as Prime Minister (in 1923–1924, 1924–1929 and 1935–1937), dominated British politics.<ref>{{Cite ODNB |last=Ball |first=Stuart |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30550 |title=Baldwin, Stanley, first Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (1867–1947) |date=2004 |edition=January 2011 online |series=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/30550}}</ref> His mixture of strong social reforms and steady government proved a powerful election combination, with the result that the Conservatives governed Britain either by themselves or as the leading component of the [[UK National Government (United Kingdom)|National Government]]. He was the last party leader to win over 50% of the vote (in the [[1931 United Kingdom general election|general election of 1931]]). Baldwin's political strategy was to polarize the electorate so that voters would choose between the Conservatives on the right and the Labour Party on the left, squeezing out the Liberals in the middle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Andrew J. |date=July 2005 |title=Stanley Baldwin, Heresthetics and the Realignment of British Politics |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=429–463 |doi=10.1017/S0007123405000244 |doi-broken-date=18 August 2024 |jstor=4092239}}</ref> The polarization did take place and while the Liberals remained active under Lloyd George, they won few seats and were a minor factor until they [[Cameron–Clegg coalition|joined a coalition with the Conservatives]] in 2010. Baldwin's reputation soared in the 1920s and 1930s, but crashed after 1945 as he was blamed for the appeasement policies toward Germany, and as admirers of Churchill made him the Conservative icon. Since the 1970s Baldwin's reputation has recovered somewhat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williamson |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Williamson (historian) |date=March 2004 |title=Baldwin's Reputation: Politics and History, 1937–1967 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=127–168 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X03003546 |jstor=4091548|s2cid=145455237 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/467/1/467.pdf }}</ref>

Chancellor of the Exchequer [[Winston Churchill]] put Britain back on the gold standard in 1925, which many economists blame for the mediocre performance of the economy.<ref name=Solomou&Vartis>{{Cite journal |last1=Solomou |first1=Solomos |last2=Vartis |first2=Dimitris |date=September 2005 |title=Effective Exchange Rates in Britain, 1920–1930 |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=65 |issue=3 |jstor=3875020 |pages=850–859|doi=10.1017/S0022050705000318 |doi-broken-date=18 August 2024 |s2cid=154005849 }}</ref> Others point to a variety of factors, including the inflationary effects of the World War and supply-side shocks caused by reduced working hours after the war.<ref name=Solomou&Vartis/>

During the war, [[Trade unions in the United Kingdom|trade unions]] were encouraged and their membership grew from 4.1&nbsp; million in 1914 to 6.5&nbsp; million in 1918. They peaked at 8.3&nbsp; million in 1920 before relapsing to 5.4&nbsp; million in 1923.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=B.R. |title=Abstract of British Historical Statistics |date=1962 |page=68}}; {{Cite book |last=Pugh |first=Martin |title=[[Speak for Britain!: A New History of the Labour Party]] |date=2011 |pages=100–127}}</ref>

Coal was a sick industry; the best seams were being exhausted, raising the cost. Demand fell as oil began replacing coal for fuel. The [[1926 United Kingdom general strike|1926 general strike]] was a nine-day nationwide walkout of 1.3&nbsp; million railwaymen, transport workers, printers, dockers, iron workers and steelworkers supporting the 1.2&nbsp; million coal miners who had been locked out by the owners. The miners had rejected the owners' demands for longer hours and reduced pay in the face of falling prices.{{Sfnp|Medlicott|1976|pages=223–230}} The Conservative government had provided a nine-month subsidy in 1925 but that was not enough to turn around a sick industry. To support the miners the [[Trades Union Congress]] (TUC), an umbrella organization of all trades unions, called out certain critical unions. The hope was the government would intervene to reorganize and rationalize the industry, and raise the subsidy. The Conservative government had stockpiled supplies and essential services continued with middle class volunteers. All three major parties opposed the strike. The Labour Party leaders did not approve and feared it would tar the party with the image of radicalism, for the [[Comintern]] in Moscow had sent instructions for Communists to aggressively promote the strike. The general strike itself was largely non-violent, but the miners' lockout continued and there was violence in Scotland. It was the only general strike in British history, for TUC leaders such as [[Ernest Bevin]] considered it a mistake. Most historians treat it as a singular event with few long-term consequences, but Martin Pugh says it accelerated the movement of working-class voters to the Labour Party, which led to future gains.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reid |first1=Alastair |last2=Tolliday |first2=Steven |date=1977 |title=Review: The General Strike, 1926 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=1001–1012 |jstor=2638422}}; {{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Pugh (author) |date=2006 |title=The General Strike |journal=[[History Today]] |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=40–47}}</ref> The [[Trade Disputes and Trade Unions Act 1927]] made general strikes illegal and ended the automatic payment of union members to the Labour Party. That act was largely repealed in 1946. The coal industry used up the more accessible coal and as costs rose output fell from 2567&nbsp; million tons in 1924 to 183 million in 1945.{{Sfnp|Mitchell|1962|pages=116–117}} The Labour government nationalised the mines in 1947.

The [[Great Depression]] originated in the United States in late 1929 and quickly spread to the world. Britain had never experienced the boom that had characterized the US, Germany, Canada and Australia in the 1920s, so its bust appeared less severe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richardson |first=H. W. |date=1969 |title=The Economic Significance of the Depression in Britain |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=3–19 |doi=10.1177/002200946900400401 |jstor=259833 |s2cid=162292590}}</ref> Britain's world trade fell in half (1929–1933), the output of heavy industry fell by a third, employment profits plunged in nearly all sectors. At the depth in summer 1932, registered unemployed numbered 3.5&nbsp; million, and many more had only part-time employment. Experts tried to remain optimistic. [[John Maynard Keynes]], who had not predicted the slump, said, "'There will be no serious direct consequences in London. We find the look ahead decidedly encouraging."<ref>{{Cite book |first=Richard |last=Overy |title=The Twilight Years: The Paradox of Britain Between the Wars |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=9781101498347 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IQSfaaan1qUC&pg=PT96 96] |author-link=Richard Overy}}</ref>

On the left figures such as [[Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield|Sidney]] and [[Beatrice Webb]], [[J. A. Hobson]], and [[G. D. H. Cole]] repeated the warnings they had been making for years about the imminent death of capitalism, only now far more people paid attention.{{Sfnp|Overy|2010|loc=ch. 2}} Starting in 1935 the [[Left Book Club]] provided a new warning every month, and built up the credibility of Soviet-style socialism as an alternative.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Samuels |first=Stuart |date=1966 |title=The Left Book Club |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=65–86 |doi=10.1177/002200946600100204 |jstor=259923 |s2cid=159342335}}</ref>

The King declared war on [[Nazi Germany]] in September 1939, after the German [[invasion of Poland]]. During the quiet period of "[[phoneyPhoney warWar]]", the British sent to France the most highly mechanized army in the world; together with France they had more tanks than Germany, but fewer warplanes. The smashing German victory in Spring 1940 was due entirely to "superior combat doctrine. Realistic training, imaginative battlefield leadership, and unparalleled initiative from generals down to sergeants."<ref>{{Cite book |first=Ralph M. |last=Hitchens |title=Review ... |date=January 2014 |volume=78 |issue=1 |page=406 |url=https://www.smh-hq.org/jmh/jmhvols/781.html}} (reviewing {{Cite book |first=David|last= Edgerton |author-link= David Edgerton (historian) |title= Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources, and Experts in the Second World War |date=2011 |publisher= Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-0-7139-9918-1}})</ref> The British with the thinnest of margins [[Dunkirk evacuation|rescued its main army from]] Dunkirk (as well as many French soldiers), leaving all their equipment and war supplies behind. [[Winston Churchill]] came to power, promising to fight the Germans to the very end. The Germans threatened an invasion—which the Royal Navy was prepared to repel. First the Germans tried to achieve air supremacy but were defeated by the Royal Air Force in the [[Battle of Britain]] in late summer 1940. [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] declared war in December 1941, and quickly seized Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, and Burma, and threatened Australia and India. Britain formed an alliance with the Soviet Union (starting in 1941) and very close ties to the United States (starting in 1940). The war was very expensive. It was paid for by high taxes, by selling off assets, and by accepting large amounts of [[Lend -Lease]] from the U.S. and Canada. The US gave $30&nbsp; billion in munitions; Canada also gave aid. (The American and Canadian aid did not have to be repaid, but there were also American loans that were repaid.)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hughes |first=J. R. T. |date=1958 |title=Financing the British War Effort |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=193–199 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700077718 |jstor=2115103 |s2cid=154148525}}</ref>

The media called it a "people's war"—a term that caught on and signified the popular demand for planning and an expanded welfare state.{{Sfnp|Calder|1969}} The Royal family played major symbolic roles in the war. They refused to leave London during the [[Thethe Blitz|Blitz]] and were indefatigable in visiting troops, munition factories, dockyards, and hospitals all over the country. All social classes appreciated how the royals shared the hopes, fears and hardships of the people.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Alfred F. |last=Havighurst |title=Britain in Transition: The Twentieth Century |date=1962 |chapter=Chapter 9 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |ol=4728126M |isbn= 0226319687}}</ref>

Much of this success was due to the systematic planned mobilisation of women, as workers, soldiers and housewives, enforced after December 1941 by conscription.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hancock |author-link=Keith Hancock (historian) |first1=W. K. |last2=Gowing |author-link2=Margaret Gowing |first2=M. M. |title=British War Economy |date=1949}}</ref> Women supported the war effort, and made the rationing of consumer goods a success. In some ways the government over-responded, evacuating too many children in the first days of the war, closing cinemas as frivolous then reopening them when the need for cheap entertainment became clear, [[British Petpet Massacremassacre|sacrificing cats and dogs]] to save a little space on shipping pet food, only to discover an urgent need to keep rats and mice under control.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marwick |first=Arthur |title=Britain in the Century of Total War: Peace and Social Change, 1900–1967 |date=1968 |isbn=978-0-37-000386-3 |page=258 |publisher=Bodley Head |author-link=Arthur Marwick}}</ref>

The British relied successfully on voluntarism. Munitions production rose dramatically, and the quality remained high. Food production was emphasised, in large part to free shipping for munitions. Farmers increased the area under cultivation from 12,000,000 to 18,000,000 acres (from about 50,000 to 75,000&nbsp; km²), and the farm labour force was expanded by a fifth, thanks especially to the [[Women's Land Army]].{{Sfnp|Calder|1969|pp=276–283, 411–430}}

The end of the war saw a [[landslide victory]] for [[Clement Attlee]] and the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. They were elected on a manifesto of greater [[social justice]] with left-wing policies such as the creation of a [[National Health Service]], more [[council housing]] and [[nationalisation]] of several major industries. Britain faced a severe financial crisis, and responded by reducing her international responsibilities and by sharing the hardships of an "age of austerity".<ref>{{Cite book |first= David |last=Kynaston |author-link=David Kynaston |title=Austerity Britain, 1945–1951 |date=2008 |chapter=Chapter 4}}</ref> Large loans from the United States and [[Marshall Plan]] grants helped rebuild and modernise its infrastructure and business practices. [[Rationing in the United Kingdom during and after#Post-Second World War II1945–1954|Rationing]] and [[National Serviceservice|conscription]] dragged on well into the post war years, and the country suffered [[British winterWinter of 1946–19471946–47 in the United Kingdom|one of the worst winters on record]].<ref>{{Cite book |author-link= Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska |first= Ina |last= Zweiniger-Bargielowska |title=Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls, and Consumption, 1939–1955 |date=2002}}</ref> Nevertheless, morale was boosted by events such as the marriage of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Princess Elizabeth]] in 1947 and the [[Festival of Britain]] in 1951.{{Sfnp|Havighurst|1962|loc=ch. 10}}

Labour Party experts went into the files to find the detailed plans for nationalisation. To their surprise, there were no plans.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}}{{dubious|date=July 2024}} The leaders decided to act fast to keep up the momentum of the [[1945 United Kingdom general election|1945 electoral]] landslide. They started with the [[Bank of England]], civil aviation, coal, and [[Cable & Wireless plc|Cable & Wireless]]. Then came railways, canals, road haulage and trucking, electricity, and gas. Finally came iron and steel, which was a special case because it was a manufacturing industry. Altogether, about one fifth of the economy was nationalised. Labour dropped its plans to nationalise farmlands. The procedure used was developed by [[Herbert Morrison]], who as [[Lord President of the Council]] chaired the Committee on the Socialization of Industries.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} He followed the model that had already been used to establish public corporations such as the [[BBC]] (1927). In exchange for the shares, the owners of the companies were given government bonds paying low rates of interest, and the government took full ownership of each affected company, consolidating it into a national monopoly. The management remained the same, but they were now effectively civil servants working for the government.<ref name="Sked, Cook and Beer">{{Cite book |last1=Sked |first1=Alan |title=Post-War Britain: A Political History |last2=Cook |first2=Chris |date=1979 |pages=31–34 |author-link=Alan Sked}}; {{Cite book |first=Samuel H. |last=Beer |author-link=Samuel Beer |title=British Politics in the Collectivist Age |date=1965 |pages=188–216}}</ref>

In 1976, UK wages were amongst the lowest in Western Europe, being half of West German rates and two-thirds of Italian rates.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tracy |first=Noel |title=The Origins of the Social Democratic Party |date=1983 |page=29}}</ref> In addition, while educational opportunities for working-class people had widened significantly since the end of the Second World War, a number of developed countries came to overtake Britain in some educational indicators. By the early 1980s, some 80% to 90% of school leavers in France and West Germany received vocational training, compared with 40% in the United Kingdom. By the mid-1980s, over 80% of pupils in the United States and West Germany and over 90% in Japan stayed in education until the age of eighteen, compared with barely 33% of British pupils.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDowall |first=David |title=Britain in Close-Up |date=2008}}</ref> In 1987, only 35% of 16- to 18-year-olds were in full-time education or training, compared with 80% in the United States, 77% in Japan, 69% in France, and 49% in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sampson |first=Anthony |title=The Essential Anatomy of Britain: Democracy in Crisis |date=1993 |author-link=Anthony Sampson}}</ref> There also remained gaps between manual and non-manual workers in areas such as fringe benefits and wage levels. In April 1978, for instance, male full-time manual workers aged 21 and above averaged a gross weekly wage of £80.70, while the equivalent for male white collar workers stood at £100.70.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Labour and Inequality: A Fabian Study of Labour in Power, 1974–79 |date=1980 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=0435831062 |editor-last=Bosanquet |editor-first=Nick |editor-link=Nick Bosanquet |edition=1st |editor-last2=Townsend |editor-first2=Peter |editor-link2=Peter Townsend (sociologist)}}</ref>

Between 1867 and 1910, the UK had granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand "Dominion" status (near complete autonomy within the Empire). They became charter members of the British Commonwealth of Nations (known as the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] since 1949), an informal but close-knit association that succeeded the British Empire. Beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled. Today, most of Britain's former colonies belong to the Commonwealth, almost all of them as independent members. There are, however, 13 former British colonies, including [[Bermuda]], [[Gibraltar]], the [[Falkland Islands]], and others, which have elected to continue rule by London and are known as [[British overseas territory|British Overseas Territories]].

[[File:Army Air Corps Lynx linking up with RAF regiment vehicle patrol. MOD 45142954.jpg|thumb|British forces south of [[Basra International Airport]], [[Iraq]], November 2003]]

In the [[2001 United Kingdom general election|2001 General Election]], the Labour Party won a second successive victory, though voter turnout dropped to the lowest level for more than 80 years.<ref>[{{Cite news |date=2001-06-08 |title=Turnout 'at 80-year low' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/news/vote2001/hi/english/newsid_1376000/1376575.stm Turnout 'at 80|access-yeardate=2024-08-21 low'|work=[[BBC News]] news.bbc.co.uk, 8 June 2001|language=en-GB}}</ref> Later that year, the [[September 11th11 attacks]] in the United States led to American President [[George W. Bush]] launching the [[War on Terrorterror]], beginning with the [[WarUnited inStates Afghanistan (2001–2021)|invasion of]] [[Islamic RepublicAfghanistan|invasion of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] aided by British troops in October 2001. Thereafter, with the US focus shifting to Iraq, Tony Blair convinced the Labour and Conservative MPs to vote in favour of supporting the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], despite huge anti-war marches held in London and Glasgow. Forty-six thousand British troops, one-third of the total strength of the Army's land forces, were deployed to assist with the invasion of Iraq and thereafter British armed forces were responsible for security in southern Iraq. All British forces were withdrawn in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Andrew Mumford |title=The Counter-Insurgency Myth: The British experience of irregular warfare |date=2012-08-06 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136649387 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rNE8AjCnd-wC&pg=PT171 171]}}</ref>

Following the [[2007 Scottish Parliament election]], the pro-independence [[Scottish National Party]] (SNP) won their first ever victory. They formed a [[minority government]] with plans to hold a referendum before 2011 to seek a mandate "to negotiate with the Government of the United Kingdom to achieve [[Scottish Independenceindependence|independence for Scotland]]."<ref>[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/08/13103747/10 Choosing Scotland's Future: A National Conversation: Independence and Responsibility in the Modern World, Annex B Draft Referendum (Scotland) Bill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208053443/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/08/13103747/10 |date=8 February 2015 }} The Scottish Government, Publications</ref> Unionist parties responded by establishing the [[Commission on Scottish Devolution|Calman Commission]] to examine further [[devolution]] of powers,<ref>[{{Cite news |date=2007-12-06 |title=MSPs back devolution review body |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/12/hi/uk_news/scotland/7129899.stm MSPs back devolution review body]|access-date=2024-08-21 |work=[[BBC News,]] 6 December 2007.|language=en-GB}}</ref> a position that had the support of the Prime Minister.<ref>[{{Cite news |date=2008-02-17 |title=PM backs Scottish powers review |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/12/hi/ukuk_news/7249002.stm PM backs Scottish powers review]|access-date=2024-08-21 |work=[[BBC News,]] 17 February 2008.|language=en-GB}}</ref> Responding to the findings of the review, the UK government issued a white paper in November 2009, on new powers that would be devolved to the [[Scottish Government]], notably on how it can raise tax and carry out capital borrowing, and the running of [[Elections in Scotland|Scottish Parliament elections]].<ref name="BBC25Nov09NewPowersAfterCalman" /> The proposal was criticised by the UK parliament opposition parties for not proposing to implement any changes before the [[2010 United Kingdom general election|next general election]]. Scottish Constitution Minister [[Michael Russell (Scottish politician)|Michael Russell]] criticised the white paper, calling it "flimsy" and stating that their proposed [[2014 Scottish independence referendum#2007 SNP administration|Referendum (Scotland) Bill, 2010]], whose own white paper was to be published five days later, would be "more substantial".<ref name="BBC25Nov09NewPowersAfterCalman">{{Cite news |date=25 November 2009 |title=New Holyrood powers planned after Calman review |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8377028.stm |url-status=live |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125052202/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/8377028.stm |archive-date=25 November 2009}}</ref> According to ''[[The Independent]]'', the Calman Review white paper proposals fall short of what would normally be seen as requiring a referendum.<ref name="Independent30Nov09SNPReveals">{{Cite news |last=Quinn |first=Joe |date=30 November 2009 |title=SNP reveals vision for independence referendum |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/snp-reveals-vision-for-independence-referendum-1831469.html |url-status=live |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203142534/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/snp-reveals-vision-for-independence-referendum-1831469.html |archive-date=3 December 2009}}</ref> These proposals would ultimately form the basis of the [[Scotland Act 2012]].

The [[2011 Scottish Parliament election|2011 election]] saw a decisive victory for the SNP which was able to form a majority government intent on delivering a referendum on independence.<ref>{{Citation |last=A. Black |title=Scottish election: SNP profile |date=18 May 2011 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-13315752 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520031327/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-13315752 |archive-date=20 May 2011 |url-status=live}}.</ref> Within hours of the victory, Prime Minister David Cameron guaranteed that the UK government would not put any legal or political obstacles in the way of such a referendum.<ref>[{{Cite news |last=Carrell |first=Severin |last2= |first2= |date=2011-05-07 |title=Scottish independence: Cameron gives green light to referendum |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2011/may/08/cameron-green-light-scottish-referendum Scottish|access-date=2024-08-21 independence:|work=The CameronObserver gives green|language=en-GB light to referendum] guardian.co.uk, 8 May 2011|issn=0029-7712}}</ref>

On 18 September 2014, a referendum was held in Scotland on whether to leave the United Kingdom and become an independent country. The three UK-wide political parties—Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats—campaigned together as part of the [[Better Together (campaign)|Better Together]] campaign while the pro-independence Scottish National Party was the main force in the [[Yes Scotland]] campaign, together with the [[Scottish Greens|Scottish Green Party]] and the [[Scottish Socialist Party]]. Days before the vote, with the opinion polls closing, the three Better Together party leaders issued [[Smith Commission|'The Vow']], a promise of more powers for Scotland in the event of a No vote. The referendum resulted in Scotland voting by 55% to 45% to remain part of the United Kingdom.

In the wake of the global [[economicGreat crisis of 2008Recession]], the United Kingdom economy contracted, experiencing negative economic growth throughout 2009. The announcement in November 2008 that the economy had shrunk for the first time since late 1992 brought an end to 16 years of continuous economic growth. Causes included an end to the easy credit of the preceding years, reduction in consumption and substantial depreciation of sterling (which fell 25% against the euro between January 2008 and January 2009),<ref>[http://www.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory FXHistory: historical currency exchange rates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720101840/http://oanda.com/convert/fxhistory |date=20 July 2006 }} From €1 => £0.73650 to €1 => 0.9690</ref> leading to increased import costs, notably of oil.

On 8 October 2008, the [[British Government]] announced a [[2008 United Kingdom bank rescue package|bank rescue package]] of around £500&nbsp; billion<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 March 2009 |title=Gordon Brown should say 'sorry' |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/gordon-brown/4961897/Gordon-Brown-should-say-sorry-over-economy-minister-says.html |access-date=9 March 2009}}{{Dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{Cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> ($850&nbsp; billion at the time). The plan comprised three parts: £200&nbsp; billion to be made available to the banks in the [[Bank of England]]'s Special Liquidity Scheme; the Government was to increase the banks' market capitalization, through the Bank Recapitalization Fund, with an initial £25&nbsp; billion and another £25&nbsp; billion to be provided if needed; and the Government was to temporarily underwrite any eligible lending between British banks up to around £250&nbsp; billion. With the UK officially coming out of recession in the fourth quarter of 2009—ending six consecutive quarters of economic decline—the Bank of England decided against further [[quantitative easing]].<ref>[http://{{Cite news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8496830.stm |date=2010-02-04 |title=Bank of England's time-out for quantitative easing plan] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk,/2/hi/business/8496830.stm 4|access-date=2024-08-21 February|work=BBC 2010News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

The [[2010 United Kingdom general election|United Kingdom General Election]] of 6 May 2010 resulted in the first [[hung parliament]] since 1974, with the Conservative Party winning the largest number of seats, but falling short of the 326 seats required for an overall majority. Following this, the Conservatives and the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] agreed to form the first [[Cameron–Clegg coalition|coalition government]] for the UK since the end of the Second World War, with [[David Cameron]] becoming Prime Minister and [[Nick Clegg]] Deputy Prime Minister.<ref>Nicholas Allen and John Bartle, eds. ''Britain at the Polls 2010'' (2010) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1849208468 excerpt and text search]</ref>

Under the coalition government, [[Royal Air Force|British military aircraft]] participated in the UN-mandated [[2011 military intervention in Libya|intervention]] in the [[2011 Libyan civil war]], flying a total of 3,000 air [[sortie]]s against forces loyal to the Libyan dictator [[Muammar Gaddafi]] between March and October 2011.<ref>[http://www.raf.mod.uk/news/Libya-OpELLAMY.cfm RAF.mod.uk – Operation Ellamy] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029010050/http://www.raf.mod.uk/news/Libya-OpELLAMY.cfm |date=29 October 2011 }}. Retrieved 20 October 2011.</ref><ref>[{{Cite news |date=2011-10-28 |title=UK military starting Libya return |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15502414 "UK military starting Libya return".]|access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC, 28News October 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2011.|language=en-GB}}</ref> 2011 also saw England suffer [[2011 England riots|unprecedented rioting]] in its major cities in early August, killing five people and causing over £200&nbsp; million worth of property damage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Insurance Industry welcomes Prime Minister's Compensation Scheme announcement and pledges help to make the scheme work |url=http://www.abi.org.uk/Media/Releases/2011/08/UK__Insurance_Industry_welcomes_Prime_Ministers_Compensation_Scheme_announcement_and_pledges_help_to_make_the_scheme_work_.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301213043/http://www.abi.org.uk/Media/Releases/2011/08/UK__Insurance_Industry_welcomes_Prime_Ministers_Compensation_Scheme_announcement_and_pledges_help_to_make_the_scheme_work_.aspx |archive-date=1 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2011 |publisher=Association of British Insurers}}</ref>

In late October 2011, the [[2011 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011|prime ministers]] of the [[Commonwealth realm]]s voted to grant gender equality in the [[Succession to the British throne#Current line of succession|royal succession]], ending the male-preference [[primogeniture]] that was mandated by the [[Act of Settlement 1701]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2011 |title=Royal succession gender equality approved by Commonwealth |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/oct/28/royal-succession-gender-equality-approved |website=The Guardian}}</ref> The amendment, once enacted, also ended the ban on the monarch marrying a Catholic.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ncronline.org/news/global/commonwealth-lift-law-banning-monarchs-marrying-catholics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031160015/http://ncronline.org/news/global/commonwealth-lift-law-banning-monarchs-marrying-catholics |date=31 October 2011 |website=[[National Catholic Reporter]] |archive-date=31 October 2011 |title=British monarchs can soon marry Catholics}}</ref>

Labour suffered its worst defeat since 1987, taking only 31% of the votes and losing 40 of its 41 seats in Scotland. The [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] lost 49 of their 57 seats, as they were punished for their decision to form a coalition with the conservatives in 2010. The [[UK Independence Party]] (UKIP), rallying voters against the European Union and against uncontrolled immigration, secured 13% of the vote and came second in over 115 races, but won only one seat in parliament.<ref>see{{Cite [news |date=2015-05-07 |title=Election results: Conservatives win majority |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2015-32633099 |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC "Results"News May 8, 2015]|language=en-GB}}</ref> Cameron had a mandate for his austerity policies to shrink the size of government, and a challenge in dealing with Scotland.<ref>Adam Taylor, "4 ways the British elections have changed everything", [https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/05/08/4-ways-the-british-elections-have-changed-everything/?hpid=z1 ''Washington Post'' 8 May 2015]</ref> Likewise the Green Party of England and Wales saw a rise in support but retained just its one seat.

On 20 February 2016, British Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] announced that a referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union would be held on 23 June 2016, following years of campaigning by [[Euroscepticism|eurosceptics]]. Debates and campaigns by parties supporting both "Remain" ([[Britain Stronger in Europe]]) and "Leave" ([[Vote Leave]]) focused on concerns regarding trade and the [[European Singlesingle Marketmarket]], security, migration and sovereignty. The result of the referendum was in favour of the country leaving the EU with 51.9% of voters wanting to leave.<ref name="NYTEUBrexit">{{Cite news |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=23 June 2016 |title=Britain Votes to Leave E.U., Stunning the World |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/britain-brexit-european-union-referendum.html |access-date=24 June 2016 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> David Cameron resigned from Parliament on 13 July, which led to [[Theresa May]] succeeding him as Prime Minister.

The UK remained a member of the EU for the time being, but invoked Article 50 of the [[Treaty of Lisbon|Lisbon Treaty]] on 29 March 2017. This started negotiations on a withdrawal agreement that will last no more than two years (unless the Council and the UK agree to extend the negotiation period), before an exit from the European Union ([[Brexit]]) intended on 29 March 2019 but later extended to 31 October 2019,<ref name="BBCEUBrexit">{{Cite news |date=24 June 2016 |title=EU Brexit referendum: UK 'must not delay leaving' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-36618317 |access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> then again to early 2020.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Mark|last1=Landler|first2=Stephen|last2=Castle|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4?ocid=spartanntp|title=Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: 'Brexit Will Happen'|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York City|via=[[MSN]]|date=12 December 2019|access-date=12 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213060550/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4%3Focid%3Dspartanntp|archive-date=13 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Leicester coronavirus stay at home sign, Oxford street.jpg|thumb|Sign encouraging the public to [[Stay-at-home order|stay at home]] and avoid unessential travel in [[Leicester]] during, January 2021]]

By the Autumn, COVID-19 cases were again rising.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Covid updates: UK records highest daily Covid deaths since 1 July |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-54336494 |access-date=2 October 2020 |website=BBC News |language=en-gb}}</ref> This led to the creation of new regulations along with the introduction of the concept of a local lockdown, a variance in restrictions in a more specific geographic location than the four nations of the UK.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 September 2020 |title=Children will stay part of rule of six, says Gove |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-54129158 |access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |date=18 September 2020 |title=Covid: New restrictions in North West, Midlands, and West Yorkshire |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-54194804 |access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=22 September 2020 |title=Pubs in England to close at 10pm amid Covid spread |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-54242634 |access-date=25 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=22 September 2020 |title=Pubs in Wales to close at 22:00 from Thursday |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-politics-54251114 |access-date=25 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 September 2020 |title=Alcohol-only pubs reopen in Northern Ireland |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-54253146 |access-date=25 September 2020}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/{{Cite news/uk |date=2020-scotland09-5415929121 |title=Covid: Ban on meeting in houses extended across Scotland] 22|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-54159291 September 2020|access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC. Retrieved 23News September 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> Lockdowns took place in Wales, England and Northern Ireland later that season.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 October 2020 |title=Schools to close and tight new hospitality rules in Northern Ireland |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-54533643 |access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 October 2020 |title=Covid: Wales to go into 'firebreak' lockdown from Friday |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-54598136 |access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/{{Cite news/uk |date=2020-5476395610-31 |title=Covid-19: PM announces four-week England lockdown] 1|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-54763956 November 2020|access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC. RetrievedNews 5 November 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> A [[SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant|new variant of the virus]] is thought to have originated in [[Kent]] around September 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wise |first=Jacqui |date=16 December 2020 |title=Covid-19: New coronavirus variant is identified in UK |pages=m4857 |journal=BMJ |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/371/bmj.m4857 |access-date=19 December 2020 |doi=10.1136/bmj.m4857 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="nervtag">{{Cite web |last=New and Emerging Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory Group |date=18 December 2020 |title=NERVTAG meeting on SARS-CoV-2 variant under investigation: VUI-202012/01 |url=https://khub.net/documents/135939561/338928724/SARS-CoV-2+variant+under+investigation%2C+meeting+minutes.pdf/962e866b-161f-2fd5-1030-32b6ab467896?t=1608470511452}}</ref> Once restrictions were lifted, the novel variant rapidly spread across the UK.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Kraemer |first1=Moritz U. G. |last2=Hill |first2=Verity |last3=Ruis |first3=Christopher |last4=Dellicour |first4=Simon |last5=Bajaj |first5=Sumali |last6=McCrone |first6=John T. |last7=Baele |first7=Guy |last8=Parag |first8=Kris V. |last9=Battle |first9=Anya Lindström |last10=Gutierrez |first10=Bernardo |last11=Jackson |first11=Ben |last12=Colquhoun |first12=Rachel |last13=O'Toole |first13=Aine |last14=Klein |first14=Brennan |last15=Vespignani |first15=Alessandro |date=2021-08-20 |title=Spatiotemporal invasion dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.1.7 emergence |journal=Science |volume=373 |issue=6557 |pages=889–895 |bibcode=2021Sci...373..889K |doi=10.1126/science.abj0113 |pmc=9269003 |pmid=34301854 |last16=Volz |first16=Erik |last17=Faria |first17=Nuno |last18=Aanensen |first18=David |last19=Loman |first19=Nicholas |last20=du Plessis |first20=Louis |last21=Cauchemez |first21=Simon |last22=Rambaut |first22=Andrew |last23=Scarpino |first23=Samuel |last24=Pybus |first24=Oliver |s2cid=236209853}}</ref> Its increased transmissibility contributed to a continued increase in daily infections.<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 December 2020 |title=Covid-19: UK reports a record 55,892 daily cases |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55502595 |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref> The NHS had come under severe strain by late December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overwhelmed NHS hospitals diverting patients experts warn of third wave |url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/coronavirus/951524/coronavirus-hospitals-forced-to-divert-patients-as-fears-of-uk-third-wave-grow |access-date=1 January 2021 |website=The Week UK |date=18 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1 January 2021 |title=Covid: 'Nail-biting' weeks ahead for NHS, hospitals in England warn |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55505722 |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=Denis |date=27 December 2020 |title=Hospitals in England told to free up all possible beds for surging Covid cases |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/dec/27/hospitals-in-england-told-to-free-up-all-possible-beds-for-surging-covid-cases |access-date=1 January 2021 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 December 2020 |title=Pressure on hospitals 'at a really dangerous point' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-55362681 |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 December 2020 |title=Covid rule-breakers 'have blood on their hands' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55479018 |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref> This led to a tightening of restrictions across the UK.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 January 2021 |title=Covid in Scotland: Scots ordered to stay at home in new lockdown |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-55531069 |access-date=4 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 January 2021 |title=Covid: New lockdown for England amid 'hardest weeks' |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-55538937 |access-date=4 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-12-19 |title=Covid: Wales locks down as Christmas plans cut |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-55379237 |access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-12-17 |title=Coronavirus: NI facing six-week lockdown from 26 December |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-55349545 |access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref>

The first COVID-19 vaccine was approved and began its rollout in the UK in early December 2020.<ref name="bbc1vax2">{{Cite news |date=3 December 2020 |title=Covid: First batch of vaccines arrives in the UK |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55181665 |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=8 December 2020 |title=Covid-19 vaccine: First person receives Pfizer jab in UK |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-55227325 |access-date=8 December 2020}}</ref> 15 million vaccine doses had been given to predominantly those most vulnerable to the virus by mid-February.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 February 2021 |title=Covid: Vaccine given to 15 million in UK as PM hails 'extraordinary feat' |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-56062976 |access-date=14 February 2021}}</ref> 6 months later more than 75% of adults in the UK were fully vaccinated against COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 August 2021 |title=Covid-19: More than 75% of UK adults now double-jabbed |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-58162318 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> Restrictions began to ease from late February onwards and almost all had ended in Great Britain by August.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-02-23 |title=What's the roadmap for lifting lockdown? - BBC News |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/explainers-52530518 |access-date=2021-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223083856/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/explainers-52530518 |archive-date=23 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-07-19 |title=19 July: England Covid restrictions ease as PM urges caution |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-57882029 |access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 August 2021 |title=Covid: Pubs busy as most rules end in Wales |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-58086808 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2021 |title=Covid in Scotland: 'Right moment' to lift restrictions, says Sturgeon |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-58136277 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> A third wave of daily infections began in July 2021 due to the arrival and rapid spread of the highly transmissible [[SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Callaway |first=Ewen |date=22 June 2021 |title=Delta coronavirus variant: scientists brace for impact |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01696-3 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=595 |issue=7865 |pages=17–18 |bibcode=2021Natur.595...17C |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-01696-3 |pmid=34158664 |s2cid=235609029}}</ref> However, mass vaccination continued to keep deaths and hospitalisations at much lower levels than in previous waves.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-07-05 |title=Covid: Most rules set to end in England, says PM |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-57725523 |access-date=2021-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-02 |title='We are a petri dish': world watches UK's race between vaccine and virus |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/02/we-are-a-petri-dish-world-watches-uks-race-between-vaccine-and-virus |access-date=2021-10-15 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> During the third COVID wave, in the light of highly transmissible [[SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant|Omicron variant]], the U.K. was also the acclaim of a new hybrid strain, Deltacron variant, which pre-dominated the country until April 2022 ahead of the [[Endemic phase of COVID-19|endemic phase]] alongside [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Finland]], [[Cyprus]], [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], and others.

Starting in November 2021, a [[political scandal]] emerged about parties and other gatherings of [[Government of the United Kingdom government|government]] and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] staff held during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|COVID-19 pandemic]] in 2020 and 2021, when [[British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic|public health restrictions]] prohibited most gatherings. While several [[COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom|lockdowns in the country]] were in place, gatherings took place at [[10 Downing Street]], [[Garden of 10 and 11 Downing Street|its garden]], and other government buildings. Reports of events attracted media attention, public backlash and political controversy. In late January 2022, twelve gatherings came under investigation by the [[Metropolitan Police]], including at least three attended by Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]]. The police issued 126 [[fixed penalty notice]]s (FPNs) to 83 individuals whom the police found had committed offences under COVID-19 regulations, including one each to Johnson, his wife [[Carrie Johnson]], and [[Rishi Sunak]], the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], who all apologised and paid the penalties. The scandal damaged Johnson with various polls throughout late 2021 and early 2022 suggesting that a majority of voters wanted Johnson to resign as Prime Minister over the controversy.<ref name="reut_20211211">{{Cite news |date=11 December 2021 |title=Support for UK PM Johnson and party sinking amid scandals – poll |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/support-uk-pm-johnson-party-sinking-amid-scandals-poll-2021-12-11/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Scott |first=Geraldine |date=11 January 2022 |title=Pressure mounts on PM to resign in two polls after fresh party allegation |work=[[Evening Standard]] |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/boris-johnson-prime-minister-conservative-downing-street-yougov-b976129.html |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wright |first=Oliver |date=13 January 2022 |title=Downing Street parties: Conservative support at nine-year low |work=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/downing-street-parties-conservative-support-at-nine-year-low-d6pzrskxv |access-date=14 January 2022 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref> After Johnson apologised for the 20 May 2020 gathering, one poll indicated that 68% of the public considered his apology not to have been sincere.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sparrow |first=Andrew |date=13 January 2022 |title=Scottish Tories set to deliver snub to Johnson by not inviting him to spring conference – as it happened |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2022/jan/13/boris-johnson-coronavirus-covid-uk-news-live-pm-tory-leadership-crisis-sue-gray?page=with:block-61e0003a8f082de9d5624da3-pinned |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref>

During 2022 more scandals emerged, and in early July 2022, 62 of the United Kingdom's 179 [[List of government ministers of the United Kingdom|government ministers]], [[Parliamentary Privateprivate Secretarysecretary|parliamentary private secretaries]], [[Prime Ministerial Trade Envoy|trade envoys]], and [[Chairman of the Conservative Party|party vice-chairmen]] resigned from their positions in the [[second Johnson ministry]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Government ministers |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/government-ministers |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208104329/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/government-ministers |archive-date=8 December 2019 |access-date=7 July 2022 |publisher=Institute for Government}}</ref> What was considered the "last straw" for the Prime Minister was the [[Chris Pincher scandal]]. The scandal arose after it was revealed that Johnson had promoted his [[Chief Whip|Deputy Chief Government Whip]] [[Chris Pincher]], who was publicly facing multiple allegations of [[sexual assault]], to the position despite knowing of the allegations beforehand.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cardownie |first=Steve |title=Boris finished? Revelations about Pincher could be last straw |language=en |work=Scotsman |url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/opinion/columnists/boris-johnson-finished-revelations-he-knew-about-allegations-against-chris-pincher-mp-before-appointing-him-as-deputy-chief-whip-could-be-last-straw-steve-cardownie-3756954 |access-date=21 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=MacDougall |first=Andrew |date=7 July 2022 |title=Opinion {{!}} 'Letting Boris be Boris killed Boris': Why Chris Pincher was the last straw, as Boris Johnson is forced to resign as British PM |language=en |work=The Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/2022/07/07/letting-boris-be-boris-killed-boris-why-chris-pincher-was-the-last-straw-as-boris-johnson-is-forced-to-resign-as-british-pm.html |access-date=21 July 2022}}</ref> On July 7 July, Boris Johnson resigned as Prime Minister.<ref name="resign">{{Cite news |last=Jack Guy, Luke McGee and Ivana Kottasová |date=7 July 2022 |title=UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson resigns after mutiny in his party |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/07/europe/boris-johnson-resignation-intl/index.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707173327/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/07/europe/boris-johnson-resignation-intl/index.html |archive-date=7 July 2022}}</ref> [[Foreign Secretary]] [[Liz Truss]] was [[July–September 2022 Conservative Party leadership election|elected as his successor]] to the [[Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party leadership]] on the 5 September defeating former [[Chancellor of the Exchequer|Chancellor]] [[Rishi Sunak]] with 81,326 (57.4%) against Sunak's 60,399 (42.6%).<ref>{{cite news |title=How Liz Truss won the Conservative leadership race |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-60037657 |work=BBC News |date=7 July 2022}}</ref>

On 19 October [[Suella Braverman]], the [[homeHome secretarySecretary]], resigned over a technical breach of the [[Ministerial Code]] following a disagreement with Truss over immigration reform. Braverman's resignation letter was highly critical of Truss.<ref>{{cite news |title=Suella Braverman was in denial over forced resignation, sources say |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-63433252 |work=BBC News |date=28 October 2022}}</ref> That evening MPs voted on a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] [[Motion (parliamentary procedure)|motion]] to create time to debate a ban on [[fracking in the United Kingdom]], which was opposed by the government. The vote caused confusion among Conservative MPs, who were not clear whether or not it was being treated as a [[confidence vote]]. The confusion was compounded by speculation that the [[Chief Whip]] and Deputy Chief Whip had resigned, and by allegations that some Conservative MPs had been manhandled in the voting lobby.