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{{Short description|Series of political upheavals
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox historical event
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{{Revolution sidebar}}
The '''revolutions of 1848''', known in some countries as the '''
The revolutions were essentially [[Democracy|democratic]] and [[Liberalism|liberal]] in nature, with the aim of removing the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and creating independent [[nation-state]]s, as envisioned by [[romantic nationalism]]. The revolutions spread across Europe after an initial revolution began in [[
The uprisings were led by temporary coalitions of reformers, the middle classes, the upper classes (the [[bourgeoisie]]) and workers;<ref>Edward Shorter, "Middle-class anxiety in the German revolution of 1848." ''Journal of Social History'' (1969):
==Origins==
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Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes. A popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as [[liberalism|popular liberalism]], [[nationalism]] and [[socialism]] began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants and the working urban poor.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Large swaths of the [[nobility]] were discontented with [[absolute monarchy|royal absolutism]] or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an [[Kraków Uprising|uprising]] of [[Poland|Polish]] nobility in Austrian [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]], which was only countered when peasants, in turn, [[Galician slaughter|rose up against the nobles]].<ref>Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, ''A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change'', Routledge, 1998. {{ISBN|0415161118}}. pp.
The middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participation in the revolutions, however, differed. While much of the [[Motivation|impetus]] came from the middle classes, the physical backbone of the movement came from the lower classes. The revolts first erupted in the cities.
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===Rural areas===
Rural population growth had led to food shortages, [[Land (economics)|land]] pressure, and migration, both within and from Europe, especially to the Americas. Peasant discontent in the 1840s grew in intensity. Peasant occupations of lost communal land increased in many areas; those convicted of wood theft in the Rhenish Palatinate increased from 100,000 in 1829–30 to 185,000 in 1846–47.<ref>Sperber, Jonathan. ''The European Revolutions of 1848'' (1994) p. 90</ref> In the years 1845 and 1846, a [[potato blight]] caused a [[European Potato Famine|subsistence crisis in Northern Europe]], and encouraged the raiding of manorial potato stocks in Silesia in 1847. The effects of the blight were most severely manifested in the [[Great Irish Famine]],<ref name="Helen Litton">Helen Litton, ''The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History'', Wolfhound Press, 1995, {{ISBN|0-86327-912-0}}</ref> but also caused famine-like conditions in the [[Highland Potato Famine|Scottish Highlands]] and throughout [[continental Europe]]. Harvests of rye in the Rhineland were 20% of previous levels, while the Czech potato harvest was reduced by half.<ref>Sperber, Jonathan, ''Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848'' (Princeton, 1991), p. 140; Pech, Stanley Z. ''The Czech Revolution of 1848'' (London, 1969), p. 45</ref> These reduced harvests were accompanied by a steep rise in prices (the cost of wheat more than doubled in France and Habsburg Italy). There were 400 French food riots from 1846 to 1847, while German socio-economic protests increased from 28 from 1830 to 1839, to 103 from 1840 to 1847.<ref>Siemann, Wolfram, ''The German Revolution of 1848–1849'' (London, 1998), p. 39</ref> Central to long-term peasant grievances were the loss of communal lands, forest restrictions (such as the French Forest Code of 1827), and remaining feudal structures, notably the robot (labor obligations) that existed among the serfs and oppressed peasantry of the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg lands]].<ref>Rath, Reuben J. ''The Viennese Revolution of 1848'' (New York, 1969), p. 12 Sperber, Jonathan. ''The European Revolutions of 1848'' (1994), p. 40</ref>
[[Aristocracy|Aristocratic]] wealth (and corresponding power) was synonymous with the ownership of farmlands and effective control over the [[peasant]]s. Peasant grievances exploded during the revolutionary year of 1848, yet were often disconnected from urban revolutionary movements: the revolutionary [[Sándor Petőfi]]'s popular nationalist rhetoric in Budapest did not translate into any success with the Magyar peasantry, while the Viennese democrat [[Hans Kudlich]] reported that his efforts to galvanize the Austrian peasantry had "disappeared in the great sea of indifference and phlegm".<ref>Sperber, Jonathan. ''The European Revolutions of 1848'' (1994), pp. 152, 232.</ref>
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===Spring 1848: Astonishing success===
[[File:Barricade bei der Universität am 26ten Mai 1848 in Wien.jpg|thumb|The revolutionary barricades in [[Vienna]] in May 1848]]
The world was astonished in spring 1848 when revolutions appeared in so many places and seemed on the verge of success everywhere. Agitators who had been exiled by the old governments rushed home to seize the moment. In France, the [[July Monarchy|monarchy]] was once again [[French Revolution of 1848|overthrown and replaced by a republic]]. In a number of major German and Italian states, and in Austria, the old leaders were forced to grant liberal constitutions. The Italian and German states seemed to be rapidly forming unified nations. Austria gave Hungarians and Czechs liberal grants of autonomy and national status.<ref>Melvin Kranzberg, ''1848: A Turning Point?'' (1962)
===Summer 1848: Divisions among reformers===
In France, bloody street battles exploded between the middle class reformers and the working class radicals. German reformers argued endlessly without finalizing their results.<ref name="Kranzberg, 1962">Kranzberg, ''1848: A Turning Point?'' (1962)
===Autumn 1848: Reactionaries organize for a counter-revolution===
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===1849–1851: Overthrow of revolutionary regimes===
The revolutions suffer a series of defeats in summer 1849. Reactionaries returned to power and many leaders of the revolution went into exile. Some social reforms proved permanent, and years later nationalists in Germany, Italy, and Hungary gained their objectives.<ref>Kranzberg, ''1848: A Turning Point?'' (1962) p. xii
==Events by country or region==
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[[File:Episodio delle cinque giornate (Baldassare Verazzi).jpg|thumb|upright|Episode from the [[Five Days of Milan]], painting by [[Baldassare Verazzi]]]]
The first of the numerous revolutions to occur in 1848 in Italy came in Palermo, Sicily, [[Sicilian revolution of 1848|starting in January 1848]].<ref>{{cite
On 11 February 1848, [[Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Leopold II of Tuscany]], first cousin of Emperor [[Ferdinand I of Austria]], granted the Constitution, with the general approval of his subjects. The Habsburg example was followed by [[Charles Albert of Sardinia]] ([[Statuto Albertino|Albertine Statute]]; later became the constitution of the unified [[Kingdom of Italy]] and remained in force, with changes, until 1948<ref>{{cite book|last=Mack Smith|first=Denis |title=Modern Italy: A Political History|publisher=Yale University Press |year=1997}}</ref>) and by [[Pope Pius IX]] (Fundamental Statute). However, only King Charles Albert maintained the statute even after the end of the riots. Revolts broke out throughout the [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia]], such as the [[Five Days of Milan]] which marked the beginning of the [[First Italian War of Independence]].
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In the [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio]], [[Francis V, Duke of Modena|Duke Francis V]] attempted to respond militarily to the first attempts at armed revolt, but faced with the approach of Bolognese volunteers to support the insurgents, in order to avoid bloodshed he preferred to leave the city promising a constitution and amnesties. On 21 March 1848 he left for Bolzano. A provisional government was established in Modena. In the [[Papal States]], an internal revolt ousted Pope Pius IX from his temporal powers and led to the establishment of the [[Roman Republic (1849–1850)|Roman Republic]].
The municipalities of [[Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune|Menton and Roquebrune]] united and obtained independence as the Principality of [[Monaco]].
===France===
{{main|French Revolution of 1848}}
The "February Revolution" in France was sparked by the suppression of the ''[[campagne des banquets]].'' This revolution was driven by nationalist and republican ideals among the French general public, who believed the people should rule themselves. It ended the [[constitutional monarchy]] of [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]], and led to the creation of the [[French Second Republic]]. After an interim period, [[Napoleon III|Louis-Napoleon]], the nephew of [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], was [[1848 French presidential election|elected as president]]. In
[[Alexis de Tocqueville]] remarked in his ''Recollections'' of the period, "society was cut in two: those who had nothing united in common envy, and those who had anything united in common terror."<ref>Tocqueville, Alexis de. "Recollections," 1893</ref>
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[[File:The May Assembly 1848 in Sremski Karlovci.jpg|thumb|Proclamation of the [[Serbian Vojvodina]] in May 1848 during the [[Serb uprising of 1848–49|Serb Revolution]]]]
From March 1848 through July 1849, the Habsburg [[Austrian Empire]] was threatened by revolutionary movements, which often had a nationalist character. The empire, ruled from [[Vienna]], included
====Hungary====
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The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was the longest in Europe, crushed in August 1849 by Austrian and Russian armies. Nevertheless, it had a major effect in freeing the [[serfs]].<ref>Gábor Gángó, "1848–1849 in Hungary," ''Hungarian Studies'' (2001) 15#1 pp. 39–47. [http://epa.niif.hu/01400/01462/00025/pdf/039-047.pdf online]</ref> It started on 15 March 1848, when Hungarian patriots organized mass demonstrations in [[Pest, Hungary|Pest]] and [[Buda]] (today Budapest) which forced the imperial governor to accept their [[12 points of the Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1848|12 points of demands]], which included the demand for freedom of press, an independent Hungarian ministry residing in Buda-Pest and responsible to a popularly elected parliament, the formation of a National Guard, complete civil and religious equality, trial by jury, a national bank, a Hungarian army, the withdrawal of foreign (Austrian) troops from Hungary, the freeing of political prisoners, and union with [[Transylvania]]. On that morning, the demands were read aloud along with poetry by [[Sándor Petőfi]] with the simple lines of "We swear by the God of the Hungarians. We swear, we shall be slaves no more".<ref name="Deak, Istvan 1979">Deak, Istvan. The Lawful Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.</ref> [[Lajos Kossuth]] and some other liberal nobility that made up the [[Diet of Hungary|Diet]] appealed to the Habsburg court with demands for representative government and civil liberties.<ref name="hungaryfoundation.org">"The US and the 1848 Hungarian Revolution." The Hungarian Initiatives Foundation. Accessed 26 March 2015. http://www.hungaryfoundation.org/history/20140707_US_HUN_1848.</ref> These events resulted in [[Klemens von Metternich]], the Austrian chancellor and foreign minister, resigning. The demands of the Diet were agreed upon on 18 March by Emperor [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand]]. Although Hungary would remain part of the monarchy through [[personal union]] with the emperor, a constitutional government would be founded. The Diet then passed the April laws that established equality before the law, a legislature, a hereditary constitutional monarchy, and an end to the transfer and restrictions of land use.<ref name="hungaryfoundation.org"/>
The revolution grew into a war for independence from the [[Habsburg monarchy]] when [[Josip Jelačić]], [[Ban of Croatia]], crossed the border to restore their control.<ref>The Making of the West: Volume C, Lynn Hunt, pp.
====Galicia====
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The [[United Kingdom]], Belgium, the [[Netherlands]], [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], the [[Russian Empire]] (including [[Congress Poland|Poland]] and [[Grand Principality of Finland|Finland]]), and the [[Ottoman Empire]] did not encounter major national or Radical revolutions in 1848. [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]] were also little affected. [[Principality of Serbia|Serbia]], though formally unaffected by the revolt as it was a part of the Ottoman state, actively supported Serbian revolutionaries in the Habsburg Empire.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohiou.edu/~Chastain/rz/serbvio.htm |title=Serbia's Role in the Conflict in Vojvodina, 1848–49 |publisher=Ohiou.edu |date=25 October 2004 |access-date=1 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925153237/http://www.ohiou.edu/~chastain/rz/serbvio.htm |archive-date=25 September 2008}}</ref>
In some countries, uprisings had already occurred demanding similar reforms to the Revolutions of 1848, but with little success. This was the case for the [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], which had seen a series of uprisings before or after but not during 1848: the [[November Uprising]] of 1830–1831; the [[Kraków Uprising]] of 1846 (notable for being quelled by the anti-revolutionary [[Galician slaughter]]), and later on the [[January Uprising]] of 1863–1865.
In other countries, the relative calm could be attributed to the fact that they had already gone through revolutions or civil wars in the preceding years, and therefore already enjoyed many of the reforms which Radicals elsewhere were demanding in 1848. This was largely the case for Belgium (the [[Belgian Revolution]] in 1830–1831); Portugal (the large [[Liberal Wars]] of 1828–1834, and the minor civil war of [[Patuleia]] in 1846–1847); and Switzerland (the [[Sonderbund War]] of 1847)
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In the United States, opinions were polarized, with Democrats and reformers in favour, although they were distressed at the degree of violence involved. Opposition came from conservative elements, especially Whigs, southern slaveholders, orthodox Calvinists, and Catholics. About 4,000 German exiles arrived and some became fervent Republicans in the 1850s, such as [[Carl Schurz]]. Kossuth toured America and won great applause, but no volunteers or diplomatic or financial help.<ref>Timothy Mason Roberts, ''Distant Revolutions: 1848 and the Challenge to American Exceptionalism'' (2009)</ref>
Following [[Rebellions of 1837–1838|rebellions in 1837 and 1838]], [[1848 in Canada]] saw the establishment of [[responsible government]] in [[Nova Scotia]] and [[The Canadas]], the first such governments in the [[British Empire]] outside the United Kingdom. [[John Ralston Saul]] has argued that this development is tied to the revolutions in Europe, but described the Canadian approach to the revolutionary year of 1848 as "talking their way{{nbsp}}... out of the empire's control system and into a new democratic model", a stable democratic system which has lasted to the present day. [[Tory]] and [[Orange Order in Canada]] opposition to responsible government came to a head in riots triggered by the [[Rebellion Losses Bill]] in 1849. They succeeded in the [[burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal]], but, unlike their counterrevolutionary counterparts in Europe, they were ultimately unsuccessful.<ref>Saul, J.R. (2012). Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine & Robert Baldwin. Penguin Group (Canada).</ref>
===Latin America===
In Spanish Latin America, the Revolution of 1848 appeared in [[Republic of New Granada|New Granada]], where Colombian students, liberals, and intellectuals demanded the election of General [[José Hilario López]]. He took power in 1849 and launched major reforms, abolishing slavery and the death penalty, and providing freedom of the press and of religion. The resulting turmoil in [[History of Colombia|Colombia]] lasted three decades; from 1851 to 1885, the country was ravaged by four general civil wars and 50 local revolutions.<ref>J. Fred Rippy, ''Latin America: A Modern History'' (1958) pp.
In Chile, the 1848 revolutions inspired the [[1851 Chilean revolution]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gazmuri |first=Cristián |date=1999 |title=El "1849" chileno: Igualitarios, reformistas, radicales, masones y bomberos |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0009044.pdf |location=Santiago, Chile |publisher=[[Editorial Universitaria]] |page=104 |access-date=1 June 2014|language=es}}</ref>
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[[File:Rundgemälde Europa 1849.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A caricature by Ferdinand Schröder on the defeat of the revolutions of 1848–1849 in Europe (published in ''Düsseldorfer Monatshefte'', August 1849)]]
In the post-revolutionary decade after 1848, little had visibly changed, and many historians considered the revolutions a failure, given the seeming lack of permanent structural changes. More recently, [[Christopher Clark]] has characterised the period that followed 1848 as one dominated by a revolution in government. [[Karl Marx]] expressed disappointment at the bourgeois character of the revolutions.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Evans|editor-first1=Robert John Weston|editor-last2=Strandmann|editor-first2=Hartmut Pogge|year=2000|chapter=1848 in European Collective Memory|title=The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction|edition=hardcover|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=216|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249978.001.0001|isbn=9780198208402|last1=Evans|first1=Robert|last2=Pogge von Strandmann|first2=Hartmut}} See also {{cite journal|last=Beer|first=Max|date=July 1923|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/12/england-revolution.htm|title=Selection from the Literary Remains of Karl Marx|journal=Labour Monthly|issue=III: England and Revolution|pages=30–36|access-date=9 September 2021|via=Marxists Internet Archive}} {{cite book|last=Marx|first=Karl|date=August 2018|url=http://www.slp.org/pdf/marx/class_struggles.pdf|title=The Class Struggle in France, 1948–1850|translator-last=Kuhn|translator-first=Henry|publisher=Socialist Labor Party of America|page=13|access-date=9 September 2021|quote=And if then, as shown in the third article of Marx, in the spring of 1850 developments had concentrated the real ruling power in the bourgeois republic that had emanated from the 'social' revolution of 1848 in the hands of the big bourgeoisie ... .}}</ref> Marx elaborated in his 1850 "Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League" a theory of [[permanent revolution]] according to which the proletariat should strengthen democratic bourgeois revolutionary forces until the proletariat itself is ready to seize power. <ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Kamenka|editor-first1=Eugene|editor-last2=Smith|editor-first2=Francis Barrymore|year=1980|title=Intellectuals and Revolution: Socialism and the Experience of 1848|edition=1st hardcover|location=
Governments after 1848 were forced into managing the public sphere and popular sphere with more effectiveness, resulting in the increased prominence of the Prussian ''Zentralstelle für Pressangelegenheiten'' (Central Press Agency, established 1850), the Austrian ''Zensur-und polizeihofstelle'', and the French ''Direction Générale de la Librairie'' (1856).<ref>Clark, p. 184</ref> Nevertheless, there were a few immediate successes for some revolutionary movements, notably in the Habsburg lands. [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] and [[Prussia]] eliminated feudalism by 1850, improving the lot of the peasants. European middle classes made political and economic gains over the next 20 years; France retained universal male suffrage. Russia would later [[Emancipation reform of 1861|free the serfs on 19 February 1861]]. The Habsburgs finally had to give the Hungarians more [[self-determination]] in the ''[[Ausgleich]]'' of 1867. The revolutions inspired lasting reform in Denmark as well as the Netherlands. [[:de:Reinhard Rürup|Reinhard Rürup]] has described the 1848 Revolutions as a turning point in the development of modern [[antisemitism]] through the development of conspiracies that presented Jews as representative both of the forces of social revolution (apparently typified in [[Joseph Goldmark]] and [[Adolf Fischhof]] of Vienna) and of international capital, as seen in the 1848 report from Eduard von Müller-Tellering, the Viennese correspondent of Marx's ''[[Neue Rheinische Zeitung]]'', which declared that "tyranny comes from money and the money belongs to the Jews".<ref>"Progress and Its Limits: The Revolution of 1848 and European Jewry". Reinhard Rürup in Dowe, Dieter ed., ''Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform'' (Oxford, 2001), pp. 758, 761</ref>
About 4,000 exiles
<gallery>
File:General Blenker.jpg|[[Louis Blenker]]
File:Alexander Schimmelfennig.jpg|[[Alexander Schimmelfennig]] (Germany)
File:Carl Schurz as a young man.jpg|[[Carl Schurz]] (Germany)
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File:Zágonyi Károly.jpg|[[Charles Zagonyi]] (Hungary)
File:Meagher4s.jpg|[[Thomas Francis Meagher]] (Ireland)
File:Matania Edoardo - Ritratto giovanile di Carlo Cattaneo - xilografia - 1887.jpg|[[Carlo Cattaneo]] (Italy)
File:Garibaldi (1866).jpg|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] (Italy)
File:Induno Domenico Goffredo Mameli.jpg|[[Goffredo Mameli]] (Italy)
File:Giuseppe Mazzini.jpg|[[Giuseppe Mazzini]] (Italy)
File:Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski.jpg|[[Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski]] (Poland)
</gallery>
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* ''[[Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849]]'' by [[Christopher Clark]]
* [[Colour Revolutions]]
* [[Democracy in Europe]]
* [[Protests of 1968]]
* [[Revolutions of 1830]]
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* Breunig, Charles (1977), ''The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850'' ({{ISBN|0-393-09143-0}})
* Chastain, James, ed. (2005) ''Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848'' [http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/contents.htm online from Ohio State U.
* Clark, Christopher, (2023), ''Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World,
* Dowe, Dieter, ed. ''Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform'' (Berghahn Books, 2000)
* Evans, R. J. W., and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds. ''The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction'' (2000), 10 essays by scholars
* [[Charles-Hippolyte Pouthas|Pouthas, Charles]]. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR5 The Revolutions of 1848]" in J. P. T. Bury, ed. ''New Cambridge Modern History: The Zenith of European Power 1830–70'' (1960) pp. 389–415
* [[William L. Langer|Langer, William]]. ''[[iarchive:politicalsocialu00lang|Political and social upheaval,
** Langer, William. ''The Revolutions of 1848'' (Harper, 1971), ch
* Namier, Lewis. ''1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals'' (Doubleday Anchor Books, 1964), first published by the British Academy in 1944.
* Rapport, Mike (2009), ''1848: Year of Revolution'' {{ISBN|978-0-465-01436-1}} [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=25808 online review], a standard survey
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* Clark, Timothy J. ''Image of the people: Gustave Courbet and the 1848 revolution'' (Univ of California Press, 1999), his paintings.
* Duveau, Georges. ''1848: The Making of a Revolution'' (1966)
* Fasel, George. "The Wrong Revolution: French Republicanism in 1848", ''French Historical Studies'' Vol. 8, No. 4 (Autumn, 1974), pp.
* Loubère, Leo. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1847387 The Emergence of the Extreme Left in Lower Languedoc, 1848–1851: Social and Economic Factors in Politics]", ''American Historical Review'' (1968), v. 73#4
* Merriman, John M. ''The Agony of the Republic: The Repression of the Left in Revolutionary France,
===Germany and Austria===
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* Macartney, C. A. "1848 in the Habsburg Monarchy", ''European Studies Review,'' 1977, Vol. 7 Issue 3, pp. 285–309 [http://ehq.sagepub.com/content/7/3/285.extract online]
* O'Boyle Lenore. "The Democratic Left in Germany, 1848", ''Journal of Modern History'' Vol. 33, No. 4 (Dec. 1961), pp. 374–83 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1877214 in JSTOR]
* Robertson, Priscilla. ''Revolutions of 1848: A Social History'' (1952), pp
* Sked, Alan. ''The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848'' (1979)
* Vick, Brian. ''Defining Germany: The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity'' (Harvard University Press, 2002) {{ISBN|978-0-674-00911-0}}.
===Italy===
* Ginsborg, Paul. "Peasants and Revolutionaries in Venice and the Veneto, 1848," ''Historical Journal,'' Sep 1974, Vol. 17 Issue 3, pp.
* Ginsborg, Paul. ''Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–49'' (1979)
* Robertson, Priscilla (1952). ''Revolutions of 1848: A Social History'' (1952) pp. 309–401
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* Hamerow, Theodore S. "History and the German Revolution of 1848," ''American Historical Review'' Vol. 60, No. 1 (Oct. 1954), pp. 27–44 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1842744 in JSTOR]
* Jones, Peter (1981), ''The 1848 Revolutions (Seminar Studies in History)'' ({{ISBN|0-582-06106-7}})
* Mattheisen, Donald J. "History as Current Events: Recent Works on the German Revolution of 1848," ''American Historical Review,'' Dec 1983, Vol. 88 Issue 5, pp.
* Rothfels, Hans. "1848 – One Hundred Years After," ''Journal of Modern History,'' Dec 1948, Vol. 20 Issue 4, pp. 291–319 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1871060 in JSTOR]
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[[Category:History of liberalism]]
[[Category:Nationalist movements]]
[[Category:
[[Category:Age of Revolution]]
[[Category: Eureka Rebellion]]
[[Category:Democratization]]
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