Term limits in the United States: Difference between revisions

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In the United States, [[term limits]], also referred to as ''rotation in office'', restrict the number of [[Term of office|terms of office]] an [[Incumbent|officeholder]] may serve. At the [[Federal government of the United States|federal]] level, the [[22ndpresident Amendment toof the United States Constitution]] limitscan serve a maximum of two four-year terms, limited by the [[presidentTwenty-second ofAmendment to the United States Constitution]]. to two four-year terms.Some [[State governments of the United States|Statestate government]] offices inare some, but not all, states arealso term-limited, including [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[Legislature|legislative]], and [[Judiciary|judicial]] offices. Research studies have questioned the benefits of term limits.

Term limits date back to the [[American Revolutionary War|American Revolution]] and prior to that, to the [[Democracy|democracies]] and [[Republic|republicsrepublic]]s of [[Antiquity of humanity|antiquity]]. The [[Boule (ancient Greece)|Council of 500]] in [[ancient Athens]] rotated its entire membership annually, as did the [[ephor]]ate in ancient [[Sparta]].

The ancient [[Roman Republic]] featured a system of elected [[Magistrate|magistrates]] — [[Tribune|tribunes]] of the [[plebs]], [[aediles]], [[quaestors]], [[praetors]], and [[consuls]] — who served a single term of one year, with re-election to the same [[magistracy]] forbidden for ten years ''(see [[cursus honorum]])''. According to [[historian]] [[Garrett G. Fagan|Garrett Fagan]], office holding in the Roman Republic was based on "limited tenure of office" which ensured that "authority circulated frequently", helping to prevent [[political corruption|corruption]]. An additional benefit of the ''{{lang|la|cursus honorum''}} or ''Runrun of Officesoffices'' was to bring the "most experienced" politicians to the upper echelons of power-holding in the ancient republic.<ref name="twsOctW122">{{Cite AV media |first= Garrett G. |last=Fagan |title= The History of Ancient Rome |series=The Great Courses |year=2003 |medium=DVD |publisher=The Teaching Company |quote= ...Office-holding at Rome was based on two important concepts: collegiality and limited tenure of office... |orig-date= 1999}}</ref> Many of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|founders of the United States]] were educated in the classics, and quite familiar with rotation in the office during antiquity. The debates of that day reveal a desire to study and profit from the object lessons offered by ancient democracy.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Prior to [[independence]], several colonies had already experimented with term limits. The [[Fundamental Orders of Connecticut]] of 1639, for example, prohibited the colonial governor from serving consecutive terms by setting terms at one year's length, and holding "that no person be chosen Governor above once in two years."<ref>{{cite web|title=Fundamental Orders of Connecticut|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/order.asp|website=avalon.law.yale.edu |publisher=Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library|access-date=1 May 1, 2015}}</ref> Shortly after independence, the [[Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776]] set maximum service in the [[Pennsylvania General Assembly]] at "four years in seven."<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of Pennsylvania - September 28, 1776; section 8 |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/pa08.asp |website=avalon.law.yale.edu |date=18 December 18, 1998 |publisher=Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library}}</ref> [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s influence is seen not only in that he chaired the constitutional convention which drafted the Pennsylvania constitution, but also because it included, virtually unchanged, Franklin's earlier proposals on executive rotation. Pennsylvania's plural executive was composed of twelve citizens elected for the term of three years, followed by a mandatory vacation of four years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of Pennsylvania - September 28, 1776; section 19 |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/pa08.asp |website=avalon.law.yale.edu |date=18 December 18, 1998 |publisher=Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library}} On Franklin's plan of 1775, see {{cite book |title=The Writings of Benjamin Franklin |editor-first=Albert Henry |editor-last=Smyth |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan |year=1907 |volume=6 |at=page 423, article 9}}</ref>

The [[Articles of Confederation]], adopted in 1781, established term limits for the delegates of the [[Continental Congress]], mandating in Article V that "no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years."<ref>{{cite web|title=Articles of Confederation: March 1, 1781 |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/artconf.asp |website=The Avalon Project |publisher=Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library |access-date=17 September 17, 2015}}</ref>

On October 2, 1789, the Continental Congress appointed a committee of thirteen to examine forms of government for the impending union of the states. Among the proposals was that from the Statestate of [[Virginia]], written by [[Thomas Jefferson]], urging a limitation of tenure, "to prevent every danger which might arise to American freedom by continuing too long in office the members of the Continental Congress."<ref>{{harvnb|Boyd|1950 |loc=[https://jeffersonpapers.princeton.edu/volumes/volume-1 vol. 1, p. 411]}}</ref> The committee made recommendations, which as regards congressional term limits were incorporated unchanged into the [[Articles of Confederation]] (1781–1789). The fifth Article stated that "no person shall be capable of being a delegate [to the continental congress] for more than three years in any term of six years."{{efn|text=Article IX, paragraph 5, of the Articles of Confederation provided that, "no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of four years."}}

In contrast to the Articles of Confederation, the [[Philadelphia Convention|federal constitution convention]] at [[Philadelphia]] omitted mandatory term limits from the [[U.S. Constitution]] of 1789. At the convention, some delegates spoke passionately against term limits such as [[Rufus King]], who said "that he who has proved himself to be most fit for an Office, ought not to be excluded by the constitution from holding it."<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJtRgu3wWWkC&pg=PA62 |title=The Politics and Law of Term Limits |editor-first1=Edward H. |editor-last1=Crane |editor-first2=Roger |editor-last2=Pilon |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Cato Institute |year=1994 |page=62|isbn=9781882577132 }}</ref> The [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]], it was believed by some{{who|date=December 2020}} delegates at the convention, could have a role to play in limiting unfit officers from continuing.

When the states ratified the Constitution (1787–1788), several leading statesmen regarded the lack of mandatory limits to tenure as a dangerous defect, especially, they thought, as regards the presidency and the Senate. [[Richard Henry Lee]] viewed the absence of legal limits to tenure, together with certain other features of the Constitution, as "most highly and dangerously [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]]."<ref>{{harvtxt|Ballagh |1911 |loc=Letter to Edmund Randolph dated 16 October 16, 1787: vol 2, pp. 450-455}}. See also {{harvtxt|Ballagh |1911 |loc=Letter to Edmund Pendleton dated 12 May 12, 1776: vol. 1, p.191}}; {{cite book |title=Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican |editor-first1first=Walter H. |editor-last1last=Bennett |publisher=University of Alabama Press |year=1978 |pages=72–75, 86}}</ref> Both Jefferson<ref>{{harvnb|Boyd|1950 |loc=vol. 12 p. 440; vol. 13 p. 490}}. See also {{harvnb|Boyd|1950 |loc=vol. 15 p. 25}} for Jefferson's definition of rotation in office.</ref> and [[George Mason]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-first1=Jonathan |editor-last1=Eliot |title=The Debates in the Several State Conventions on Adoption of the Federal Constitution |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Government Printing Office |year=1836 |volume=3 |page=485}}</ref> advised limits on re-election to the Senate and to the Presidency, because, said Mason, "nothing is so essential to the preservation of a Republican government as a periodic rotation." The historian [[Mercy Otis Warren]] warned that "there is no provision for a rotation, nor anything to prevent the perpetuity of office in the same hands for life; which by a little well-timed bribery, will probably be done."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Mercy |last=Otis Warren |title=Observations on the new Constitution, and on the Federal and State Conventions 9 |editor-first1first=Herbert J. |editor-last1last=Staring |encyclopedia=The Complete Anti-Federalist |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1981 |volume=4 |pages=270–278}}</ref>

=== Presidential term limits 1789-19521789–1952 ===

{{harvtxt|Korzi|2013}} says [[George Washington]] did not set the informal precedent for a two-term limit for the Presidency. He only meant he was too worn out to personally continue in office.{{sfn|Korzi|2013|pages=43–44}} It was Thomas Jefferson who made it a principle in 1808. He made many statements calling for term limits in one form or another.{{efn|text=See [https://famguardian.org/Subjects/Politics/ThomasJefferson/jeff1230.htm ''Family Guardian'', "Thomas Jefferson on Politics & Government."]}}

The two-term limit tradition was maintained unofficially for 132 years. It was unsuccessfully challenged by [[Ulysses S. Grant|Ulysses Grant]] in 1880,{{sfn|Stein |1943 |pp=71-116}} [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in 1912,{{sfn|Stein |1943 |pp=144-222144–222}} and [[Woodrow Wilson]] in 1920.{{sfn|Pietrusza|2007}} [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] successfully broke it in 1940, citing the outbreak of [[World War II]].{{sfn|Stein |1943 |pp=317-340}} The two Roosevelts are the only presidents to run for a third term in a general election; Grant and Wilson aimed to do so, but failed to [[United States presidential nominating convention|gain their parties’parties' nominations.]] Franklin Roosevelt was re-elected in 1944 for a fourth term amidst the United States’States' engagement in World War II, but died shortly afterwards in office. The [[22ndTwenty-second Amendment]] to the U.S.United States Constitution]] was ratified in 1951, formally establishing in law the two-term limit—although it did not apply to the incumbent [[Harry S. Truman]], Franklin Roosevelt’sRoosevelt's successor. Truman declined to run for a third term in 1952.

During the [[American Civil War|US Civil War]], the [[Constitution of the Confederate States]] limited its president to a single six-year term. Only [[Jefferson Davis]] served as Confederate president, andbut he did not complete a full term in office before surrendering to the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]].

A movement in favor of term limits took hold in the early 1990s, and reached its apex in 1992 --to 1994, a period when seventeen states enacted term limits through state legislation or state constitutional amendments.<ref name=Carey>John M. Carey, Richard G. Niemi & Lynda W. Powell, ''Term Limits in State Legislatures'' (University of Michigan Press: 2009), pp. 1-21–2.</ref>

!scope="col"| Office !! Term limits

!scope="row"| [[President of the United States|President]]

| Limited to being elected to a total of two four-year terms. If a vice president becomes president by succession and completes more than two years of said former president's unfinished term, they may be elected in their own right only once. A vice president who becomes president by succession and serves fewer than two years of their predecessor's term may be elected to two more four-year terms. Becoming the president by succession may happen to someone an unlimited number of times, for example, if they are vice president and the president dies, resigns or is removed from office via impeachment conviction.<ref>{{cite news |title=Why the Constitution permits a Gore-Clinton ticket |first=Michael C. |last=Dorf |publisher=[[CNN]] Interactive |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/08/columns/fl.dorf.goreclinton.08.01/ |date=2 August 2, 2000 |author-link=Michael C. Dorf |access-date=August 7, 2010 |archive-date=October 1, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051001004410/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/08/columns/fl.dorf.goreclinton.08.01/ |url-status=dead }}<br>{{cite news |title=How to bring back Bill |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0613/p09s02-coop.html |first1=Scott E. |last1=Gant |first2=Bruce G. |last2=Peabody |work=[[Christian Science Monitor]] |date=2006-06-June 13, 2006 |access-date=2008-06-June 12, 2008 }}</ref>

!scope="row"| [[Vice President of the United States|Vice president]]

!scope="row"| [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]

!scope="row"| [[United States Senate|Senate]]

!scope="row"| [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] and lower courts

| No term limits, appointed to serve "during good Behaviour"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html |title=Transcript of the Constitution of the United States – Official Text |publisher=Archives.gov |access-date=2012-08-August 12, 2012}}</ref> (but can be impeached and removed from office for "[[High crimes and misdemeanors|high Crimes and Misdemeanors]]"). In practice a judge or justice serves until death or resignation.

Term limits at the federal level are restricted to the executive branch and some agencies. Judicial appointments at the federal level are made for life, and are not subject to election or to term limits. The U.S. Congress remains (since the [[U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton|''Thornton'' decision]] of 1995) without electoral limits.

[[George Washington]]'s decision in 1796 not to run for a third term has often been given credit as the start of a tradition that no president should ever run for a third term.<ref>{{cite book|first=Susan|last=Dunn|title=1940: FDR, Willkie, Lindbergh, Hitler-the Election amid the Storm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA129|year=2013|publisher=Yale UP|page=129|isbn=978-0300195132 }}</ref> Washington wanted to retire when his first term ended in 1792, but all his advisors begged him to stand for re-election. By 1796, however, he insisted on retiring, as he felt exhausted and disgusted by virulent personal attacks on his integrity. His [[George Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]] very briefly mentioned why he would not run for a third term, and goes on to give a great deal of political advice, but it does not mention term limits. After his death, his refusal to run was explained in terms of a "no-third-tradition." {{Harvtxt|Crockett|2008}} argues, "The argument for term limits has a solid and respectable pedigree. Contrary to popular belief, however, that pedigree does not begin with George Washington."{{sfn|Crockett|2008|p=710}} The second president, [[John Adams]], lost re-election [[1800 United States presidential election|in 1800]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]]. Jefferson himself declined re-election to a third term, attributing the precedent to Washington.<ref name="Bailey 2007 124">{{cite book|first=Jeremy D.|last=Bailey|title=Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWu7GGgkDJUC&pg=PA124|year=2007|page=124|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139466295}}</ref>

In the 1780s, about half the states provided term limits for governors.{{sfn|Korzi|2009|p=365}} The [[Constitutional Convention of 1787]] discussed the issue and decided not to institute presidential term limits. "The matter was fairly discussed in the Convention," Washington wrote in 1788, "and to my full convictions <…...> I can see no propriety in precluding ourselves from the services of any man, who on some great emergency shall be deemed universally, most capable of serving the Public," even after serving two terms. The Constitution, Washington explained, retained sufficient checks against [[political corruption]] and stagnant leadership without a presidential term limits provision.{{sfn|Peabody|2001|p=442}} Jefferson, however, strongly endorsed a policy of term limits. He rejected calls from supporters that he run for a third term in 1808, telling several state legislatures in 1807-1808 that he needed to support "the sound precedent set by [his] illustrious predecessor."<ref name="Bailey 2007 124"/>

In 1861, the [[Confederate States of America]] adopted a six-year term for their president and vice president and barred the president from seeking re-election. That innovation was endorsed by many American politicians after the Civil War, most notably by [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] in his inaugural address. [[Ulysses S. Grant|Ulysses Grant]] was urged to run for a third term in 1876, but he refused. He did try to win the 1880 nomination, but was defeated in part because of popular anti-third-term sentiment.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Dorothy S. |last=Truesdale |title=Rochester Views the Third Term 1880 |journal=Rochester History |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=1940 |pages=1–20 |url=http://www.rochester.lib.ny.us/~rochhist/v2_1940/v2i4.pdf}}</ref> [[Theodore Roosevelt]] had already served over seven years and in 1912, after a four-year hiatus, ran for a third term. He was violently criticized andfor almostdoing killedso, and attempted byassassin [[John Flammang Schrank]] stated that his motivation for doing[[Attempted soassassination of Theodore Roosevelt|shooting Roosevelt]] was preventing a third term.<ref>{{cite book|first=Tim|last=McNeese|title=The Progressive Movement: Advocating Social Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZ4MHJohpOUC&pg=PA110|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|pages=110–111|isbn=9781438106366}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=The text in McNeese's book "supporting" this claim is all in a two-page box credited to Wikipedia's own article on Schrank; Wikipedia is not a [[WP:RS|reliable source]].|date=July 2024}} The 1912 election was ultimately won by [[Woodrow Wilson]].

[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] (president, 1933–1945) was the only president to be elected more than twice, having won a third term in 1940 and a fourth term in 1944 (though he died in office three months into his fourth term). This gave rise to a successful move to formalize the traditional two-term limit by amending the [[U.S. Constitution]]. As ratified in 1951, the [[Twenty-Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-Second Amendment]] provides that "no person shall be elected to the office of President more than twice." The new Amendmentamendment explicitly did not apply to the incumbent president, [[Harry S. Truman]]. However, Truman declined to seek re-election to a third term in 1952.<ref>{{cite book |first=Alonzo L. |last=Hamby |title=Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman |url=https://archive.org/details/manofpeoplelifeo0000hamb |url-access=registration |year=1995|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manofpeoplelifeo0000hamb/page/602 602–605]|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-504546-8 }}</ref>

[[File:Average Age of Congress.webp|thumb|Average Ageage of a member of Congress through 2022]]

[[File:Percentage of Congress Over the Age of 70.webp|thumb|Percentage of Congress over the age of 70 through 2022]]

In the [[1994 U.S. elections]], part of the "[[Contract With America]]" Republican platform included legislation for term limits in Congress. After winning the majority, a Republican congressman brought a constitutional amendment to the House floor that proposed limiting members of the Senate to two six-year terms and members of the House to six two-year terms.<ref>{{USBill|104|HJRES|73}}, 104th Congress</ref> However, this rate of rotation was so slow (the life-tenured Supreme Court averages about 16 years) that the congressional version of term- limits garnered little support among the populist backers of term limits, including [[U.S. Term Limits]], the largest private organization pushing for congressional term limits.{{efn|text=U.S. Term Limits wanted House members to be limited to ''three'' two-year terms.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}}} The bill got only a bare majority (227–204), falling short of the two-thirds majority (290) needed for constitutional amendments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/104-1995/h277 |title=H.J.Res. 73 (104th): Contract with America bill (On Passage of the Bill), House Vote #277 |date=March 29, 1995 |publisher=GovTrack.us |access-date=November 21, 2012}}</ref> Three other term limit amendment bills failed to get more than 200 votes.{{efn|text=The four constitutional amendments on term limits which the House rejected 29 March 29, 1995, were sponsored by: Democrat [[John Dingell]] [12/12 retroactive], rejected 135–297; Republican [[Bob Inglis]] [6/12, not retroactive], rejected 114–316; Republican [[Van Hilleary]] [12/12, unretroactive, but defers to more stringent state imposed limits], rejected 164–265; Republican [[Bill McCollum]] [12/12 not retroactive and would override more stringent state limits]; approved by less than the requisite 2/3, 227–204; on February 12, 1997, Congress did likewise by a margin of 217–211 [50.7%].}}

Many of the proposals center around a term limit for justices that would be 10,<ref>{{Cite web |last=diadmin |date=March 5, 2024 |title=Setting Term Limits for the US Government |url=https://www.differentpolicy.org/policies/setting-term-limits-for-the-us-government/ |access-date=April 25, 2024 |website=The Institute for Different Policy |language=en-US}}</ref> 18 years to 25 years in length. (Larry Sabato, Professor of Political Science at the University of Virginia, suggested between 15 and 18 years.)<ref name="Calebresi" /><ref name=court2.0 /><ref name="Carrington" /><ref name= Sabato>{{cite news |first=Larry J. |last=Sabato |url=http://crystalball.centerforpolitics.org/crystalball/articles/ljs2010041503/ |title=Reforming the Least Democratic Branch |date=April 15, 1010 |newspaper=Sabato's Crystal Ball: University of Virginia Center for Politics}}</ref> The staggered term limits of 18 years proposed by {{harvtxt|Calebresi|Lindgren|2006}} and {{harvtxt|Carrington|Cramton|2005}} would allow for a new appointment to the Court every two years, which in effect would allow every president at least two appointments.<ref name=court2.0 /> Carrington has argued that such a measure would not require a constitutional amendment as the "Constitution doesn’tdoesn't even mention life tenure; it merely requires that justices serve during ‘good behavior’behavior'."<ref name=court2.0 /> The idea was endorsed among Judges, as [[John Roberts]] supported term limits before he was appointed to the Supreme Court as chief justice. Calabresi, Lindgren, and Carrington have also proposed that when justices have served out their proposed 18-year term they should be able to sit on other Federal Courts until retirement, death, or removal.<ref name="Calebresi" /><ref name="court2.0" />

[[Fairleigh Dickinson University]]'s PublicMind Poll measured American voters’voters' attitudes towards various proposed Supreme Court reforms, including implementing term limits. The 2010 poll found that a majority of Americans were largely unaware of a proposal to impose a term limit of 18 years, as 82% reported they had heard little or nothing at all.<ref name="fdu">[[Fairleigh Dickinson University]]'s PublicMind Poll, [http://www.publicmind.fdu.edu/courttv/final.pdf "Public Says Televising Court is Good for Democracy"] press release (March 2010).</ref> Notwithstanding a lack of awareness, 52% of Americans approved of limiting terms to 18 years, while 35% disapproved.<ref name="fdu" /> When asked how old is too old for a Supreme Court judge to serve if he seems healthy, 48% said "no limit as long as he is healthy", while 31% agreed that anyone over the age of 70 is too old.<ref name="fdu" />

[[File:United States gubernatorial term limits.svg|right|400px|thumb|U.S. gubernatorial term limits as of 20142024

Governors of thirty-sixseven states and four territories are subject to various term limits,<ref name="CSG">{{cite webbook |urleditor-last1=https://ballotpediaFrancis |editor-first1=Audrey S.org/States_with_gubernatorial_term_limits |editor-last2=Perkins |editor-first2=Heather M. |year=2021 |title=The Book of the States, withVolume gubernatorial53 term|pages=109–111 limits}}<|url=https:/ref>/www.nga.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/CSG-book-of-the-states-2021.pdf and|publisher=[[Council fourof territoriesState areGovernments]] subject|location=Lexington, toKentucky various|isbn=978-0-578-30951-4 term|oclc=1312806678 limits|accessdate=May 24, 2024}}</ref> while the governors of fourteenthirteen states, [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[mayor of Washington, D.C.]], may serve an unlimited number of terms. Each state's gubernatorial term limits are prescribed by its [[State constitution (United States)|state constitution]], with the exception of [[term limits in Wyoming|Wyoming]], whose limits are found in its statutes. Territorial term limits are prescribed by its constitution in the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], the [[Organic Act]]s in [[Guam]] and the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], and by statute in [[American Samoa]].

The governors of the following states and territories are limited to two consecutive terms, but are eligible to run again after four years out of office: [[Governor of Alabama|Alabama]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legislature.state.al.us/Codeofalabama/constitution/1901/CA-246125.htm |title=AMENDMENT 282 RATIFIED |website=Alabama Constitution |pages=Amendment 282 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Alaska|Alaska]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ltgov.alaska.gov/treadwell/services/alaska-constitution/article-iii-96A0the-executive.html |title=Article 3 – The Executive |website=Alaska Constitution |pages=Article 3, §&nbsp;5 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |archive-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216045747/http://ltgov.alaska.gov/treadwell/services/alaska-constitution/article-iii-96A0the-executive.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of Arizona|Arizona]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.azleg.gov/FormatDocument.asp?inDoc=/const/5/1.1.htm |title=1. Term limits on executive department and state officers; term lengths; election; residence and office at seat of government; duties |website=Arizona Constitution |pages=Article 5, §&nbsp;1 Version 2, clause A |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |archive-date=November 14, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114210303/http://www.azleg.gov/FormatDocument.asp?inDoc=%2Fconst%2F5%2F1.1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of Colorado|Colorado]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.michie.com/colorado/lpext.dll/coconst/56/16ed/1706?f=templates&fn=document-frame.htm&2.0 |title=Section 1. Officers – terms of office |website=Colorado Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718231433/http://www.michie.com/colorado/lpext.dll/coconst/56/16ed/1706?f=templates&fn=document-frame.htm&2.0 |archive-date=July 18, 2011 }}</ref> [[Governor of Florida|Florida]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?mode=constitution&submenu=3&tab=statutes#A04S05 |title=The Florida Constitution |website=Florida Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;5, clause b |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Georgia|Georgia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sos.georgia.gov/elections/GAConstitution.pdf |title=Constitution of the State of Georgia |website=Georgia Constitution |pages=Article V, § I, Paragraph I |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Hawaii|Hawaii]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart5.html |title=ARTICLE V |website=Hawaii Constitution |pages=Article V, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Kansas|Kansas]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kslib.info/government-information/kansas-information/kansas-constitution/article-one-executive.html |title=Article 1. – EXECUTIVE |website=Kansas Constitution |pages=Article 1, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |archive-date=February 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227160758/http://www.kslib.info/government-information/kansas-information/kansas-constitution/article-one-executive.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of Kentucky|Kentucky]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lrc.ky.gov/Legresou/Constitu/071.htm |title=Section 71 |website=Kentucky Constitution |pages=§&nbsp;71 |access-date=July 28, 2009 |archive-date=July 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090727100300/http://www.lrc.ky.gov/Legresou/Constitu/071.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of Louisiana|Louisiana]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://senate.legis.state.la.us/documents/Constitution/Article4.htm#%C2%A73.%20Election;%20Term |title=ARTICLE IV. EXECUTIVE BRANCH |website=Louisiana Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;3, Clause B |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |archive-date=June 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610105048/http://senate.legis.state.la.us/documents/Constitution/Article4.htm#%C2%A73.%20Election;%20Term |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of Maine|Maine]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maine.gov/legis/const/ |title=Maine Constitution Article V. – Part First. Executive Power |website=Maine Constitution |pages=Article V, part 1, §&nbsp;2 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Maryland|Maryland]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msa.md.gov/msa/mdmanual/43const/html/02art2.html |title=ARTICLE II – EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT |website=Maryland Constitution |pages=Article II, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Nebraska|Nebraska]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uniweb.legislature.ne.gov/laws/articles.php?article=IV-1 |title=Article IV-1 |website=Nebraska Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of New Jersey|New Jersey]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.njleg.state.nj.us/lawsconstitution/constitution.asp |title=NEW JERSEY STATE CONSTITUTION 1947 |website=New Jersey Constitution |pages=Article V, § I, paragraph 5 |access-date=July 28, July2009 |archive-date=June 30, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090630013226/http://www.njleg.state.nj.us/lawsconstitution/constitution.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of New Mexico|New Mexico]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conwaygreene.com/nmsu/lpext.dll/nmsa1978/1/b5/b7 |title= Section 1. [Composition of department; terms of office of members; residing and maintaining records at seat of government.&#93; |website=New Mexico Constitution |pages=Article V, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of North Carolina|North Carolina]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncleg.net/Legislation/constitution/article3.html |title=ARTICLE III EXECUTIVE |website=North Carolina Constitution |pages=Article III, §&nbsp;2, clause 2 |access-date=July 28, July2009 |archive-date=March 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324051547/http://www.ncleg.net/Legislation/constitution/article3.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of Ohio|Ohio]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.legislature.ohio.gov/laws/ohio-constitution?Part=3&Section=02 |title=§&nbsp;3.02 Term of office |website=Ohio Constitution |pages=Article III, §&nbsp;2 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sites.state.pa.us/PA_Constitution.html |title=CONSTITUTION OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA |website=Pennsylvania Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;3 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Rhode Island|Rhode Island]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rilin.state.ri.us/RiConstitution/C04.html |title=ARTICLE IV OF ELECTIONS AND CAMPAIGN FINANCE |website=Rhode Island Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of South Carolina|South Carolina]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scstatehouse.gov/scconstitution/a04.php |title=ARTICLE IV. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT |website=South Carolina Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;3 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427211547/http://www.scstatehouse.gov/scconstitution/a04.php |archive-date=27 April 27, 2012 }}</ref> [[Governor of South Dakota|South Dakota]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://legis.state.sd.us/statutes/DisplayStatute.aspx?Type=Statute&Statute=0N-4-2 |title=§&nbsp;2 |website=South Dakota Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;2 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Tennessee|Tennessee]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tncrimlaw.com/law/constit/III.html#4 |title= Tennessee constitution – article iii. executive department |website=Tennessee Constitution |pages=Article III, §&nbsp;4 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of West Virginia|West Virginia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legis.state.wv.us/WVCODE/WV_CON.cfm#articleVII |title=Constitution of West Virginia |website=West Virginia Constitution |pages=Article VII, §&nbsp;4 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of American Samoa|American Samoa]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asbar.org/Newcode/Title%2004.htm#a107 |title=Title 4 EXECUTIVE |website=American Samoa Code |pages=§&nbsp;4.0107 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517112019/http://www.asbar.org/Newcode/Title%2004.htm |archive-date=May 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Governor of Guam|Guam]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/48/1422 |title=§&nbsp;1422. Governor and Lieutenant Governor; term of office; qualifications; powers and duties; annual report to Congress |website=United States Code |pages=Title 48, §&nbsp;1422 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> and the [[Governor of the United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/48/1591 |title=§&nbsp;1591. Governor and Lieutenant Governor; election; eligibility; official residence; powers and duties; report |website=United States Code |pages= Title 48, §&nbsp;1591 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref>

Equivalently, the governors of [[Governor of Indiana|Indiana]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.in.gov/legislative/ic/code/const/art5.html |title=ARTICLE 5 |website=Indiana Constitution |pages=Article V, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> and [[Governor of Oregon|Oregon]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.leg.state.or.us/orcons/orcons.html |title=Constitution of Oregon |website=Oregon Constitution |pages=Article V, §&nbsp;1 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205184426/http://www.leg.state.or.us/orcons/orcons.html |archive-date=5 February 5, 2007 }}</ref> are limited to serving 8 out of any 12 years. Conversely, the governors of [[Governor of Montana|Montana]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.opi.mt.gov/bills/mca/Constition/IV/8.htm |title=Montana Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;8 |access-date=11 December 11, 2011 |archive-date=January 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113043626/http://data.opi.mt.gov/bills/mca/Constition/IV/8.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Governor of Wyoming|Wyoming]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://legisweb.state.wy.us/statutes/titles/Title22/T22CH5.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222043659/http://legisweb.state.wy.us/statutes/titles/Title22/T22CH5.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 22, 2012 |title=CHAPTER 5 – NOMINATIONS |website=Wyoming Statutes |pages=§&nbsp;22–5–103 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> are limited to two terms, serving 8 out of any 16 years.

Finally, the governors of the following states and territory are limited to two terms for life during atheir person’srespective lifetime period: [[Governor of Arkansas|Arkansas]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/assembly/Summary/ArkansasConstitution1874.pdf |title=Amend. 73. Arkansas Term Limitation Amendment |website=Arkansas Constitution |page=134 |access-date=11 December 11, 2011}}</ref> [[Governor of California|California]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/.const/.article_5 |title=CALIFORNIA CONSTITUTION ARTICLE 5 EXECUTIVE |website=California Constitution |pages=Article 5, §&nbsp;2 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108203419/http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/.const/.article_5 |archive-date=8 January 8, 2011 }}</ref> [[Governor of Delaware|Delaware]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://delcode.delaware.gov/constitution/constitution-04.shtml#P344_46154 |title=ARTICLE. III EXECUTIVE |website=Delaware Constitution |pages=Article III, §&nbsp;5 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Michigan|Michigan]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legislature.mi.gov/documents/publications/Constitution.pdf |title=Michigan Constitution |pages=Article V, §&nbsp;30 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Mississippi|Mississippi]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sos.state.ms.us/ed_pubs/constitution/constitution.asp |title=THE CONSTITUTION OF THE STATE OF MISSISSIPPI |website=Mississippi Constitution |pages=Article 5, §&nbsp;116 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of Missouri|Missouri]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moga.mo.gov/const/A04017.HTM |title=Article IV EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT Section 17 |website=Missouri Constitution |pages=Article IV, §&nbsp;17 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |archive-date=April 10, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410182754/http://www.moga.mo.gov/const/A04017.HTM |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Governor of Nevada|Nevada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://leg.state.nv.us/Const/NvConst.html#Art5Sec3 |title=THE CONSTITUTION OF THE STATE OF NEVADA |website=Nevada Constitution |pages=Article 5, §&nbsp;3 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009}}</ref> [[Governor of North Dakota|North Dakota]],<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=MacPherson |first=James |date=November 8, 2022 |title=North Dakota voters OK term limits for governor, legislators |url=https://www.stltoday.com/news/national/govt-and-politics/north-dakota-voters-ok-term-limits-for-governor-legislators/article_fc775b59-4c32-5054-aa6c-933faeb8c075.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124192638/https://apnews.com/article/bismarck-north-dakota-term-limits-government-and-politics-ebba348663d0a8e715f9b90714602354 |archive-date=November 24, 2022 |access-date= |website=St. Louis Post-Dispatch |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> the [[Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands|Northern Mariana Islands]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cnmilaw.org/constitution_article3.htm |title=ARTICLE III: EXECUTIVE BRANCH |website=Northern Mariana Islands Constitution |pages= Article III, §&nbsp;4 |access-date=28 July 28, 2009 |archive-date=October 24, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041024214602/http://www.cnmilaw.org/constitution_article3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Governor of Oklahoma|Oklahoma]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://law.justia.com/constitution/oklahoma/VI-4.html |title=SECTION VI-4 Terms of office – Succession |website=Oklahoma Constitution |format=RTF |pages=Article VI, §&nbsp;4 |access-date=5 January 5, 2015}}</ref> Former governor of California [[Jerry Brown]], however, served four non-consecutive terms because his first two terms were before limits were passed in California, and the limits [[Grandfather clause|did not apply to individuals' prior terms]].

In 2022, voters in [[Governor of North Dakota|North Dakota]] approved a constitutional amendment that limits the governor to no more than two four-year terms. The amendment only applies to individuals elected after 2023.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=MacPherson |first=James |date=November 8, 2022 |title=North Dakota voters OK term limits for governor, legislators |url=https://www.stltoday.com/news/national/govt-and-politics/north-dakota-voters-ok-term-limits-for-governor-legislators/article_fc775b59-4c32-5054-aa6c-933faeb8c075.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124192638/https://apnews.com/article/bismarck-north-dakota-term-limits-government-and-politics-ebba348663d0a8e715f9b90714602354 |archive-date=November 27, 2022 |access-date= |website=St. Louis Post-Dispatch |agency=Associated Press}}</ref>

FifteenSeventeen state legislatures currently have term limits.<ref name=NCSLStates>[https://www.ncsl.org/research/about-state-legislatures/chart-of-term-limits-states.aspx The Term-Limited States], National Conference of State Legislatures (November 12, 2020).</ref> The earliest state legislative term limit was enacted in 1990, and the most recent was enacted in 20002022. Term limits only went into effect years after they were enacted.<ref name=NCSLStates/>

*[[Illinois Senate]]: Senate presidents and minority leaders may not serve for more than 10 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/BillStatus.asp?DocNum=3&GAID=14&DocTypeID=SR&LegId=99248&SessionID=91&GA=100|title=Illinois General Assembly - Bill Status for SR0003|website=www.ilga.gov|access-date=2019-02-February 11, 2019}}</ref>

* [[Michigan Legislature]]: twelve years combined in either chamber of the legislature.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DesOrmeau |first=Taylor |date=November 9, 2022-11-09 |title=Proposal 1: Voters pass plan to shorten term limits, require politicians to disclose finances |url=https://www.mlive.com/politics/2022/11/proposal-1-voters-pass-plan-to-shorten-term-limits-require-politicians-to-disclose-finances.html |access-date=2022-11-November 21, 2022 |website=mlive |language=en}}</ref>

* [[Nebraska Legislature]]: [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature; members limited to two consecutive four-year terms (eight years), after which they must wait four years before running again.<ref>[http://nebraskalegislature.gov/faq/faq_senators.php "Frequently Asked Questions About Senators".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701192926/http://nebraskalegislature.gov/faq/faq_senators.php |date=July 1, 2014-07-01 }} [http://nebraskalegislature.gov/ Nebraska Legislature.] Retrieved 27 May 27, 2015. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150402173919/http://nebraskalegislature.gov/faq/faq_senators.php Archived 2 April 2015] at [https://web.archive.org/web/ Wayback Machine].</ref>

* There are no term limits in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]; [[Charlotte, North Carolina]]; [[Chicago, Illinois]]; [[Columbus, Ohio]]; [[Detroit, Michigan]],; [[Fort Worth, Texas]]; and [[Indianapolis, Indiana]].<ref name=2010NYC>Patrick J. Egan,[https://as.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyu-as/faculty/documents/egan.municipal.termlimits.2010.pdf Term Limits for Municipal Elected Officials: Executive and Legislative Branches prepared for the New York City Charter Revision Commission]: June 2010, p. 16.</ref>

* [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], has term limits for the mayor, but not the city council.<ref name=2010NYC/> The mayor may serve two consecutive terms but there is no limit on the total number of terms.

* [[Los Angeles, California]], and [[Phoenix, Arizona]], have term limits for both the mayor and city council, but the term limits for the mayor are stricter than the term limits for the council.<ref name=2010NYC/>

A two-term limit was imposed on [[New York City Council]] members and citywide elected officials (except for [[district attorney]]s) in [[New York City]] after a 1993 [[referendum]] (see the Charter of the City of New York, §&nbsp;1138). On November 3, 2008, however, when [[Michael Bloomberg]] was in his second term of [[Mayor of New York City|mayor]], the City Council approved the extension of the two-term limit to a three-term limit; one year later, he was elected to a third term. The two-term limit was reinstated after a referendum in 2010.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/term_limits_will_land_on_city_ballot_678DP9Lc8B4gbfNFbXTKMN | work=New York Post | title=Term limits will land on city ballot in Nov | date=12 August 12, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/03/nyregion/03limits.html | work=The New York Times | first=Javier C. | last=Hernandez | title=Term Limits in New York City Are Approved Again | date=3 November 3, 2010}}</ref>

Research studies have shown that legislative term limits increase legislative polarization,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Olson|first1=Michael|last2=Rogowski|first2=Jon C|date=2019-10-October 11, 2019|title=Legislative Term Limits and Polarization|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=82|issue=2|pages=572–586|doi=10.1086/706764|s2cid=211453078|issn=0022-3816}}</ref> reduce the legislative skills of politicians,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Sarbaugh-Thompson|first1=Marjorie|last2=Thompson|first2=Lyke|last3=Elder|first3=Charles D.|last4=Comins|first4=Meg|last5=Elling|first5=Richard C.|last6=Strate|first6=John|date=December 1, 2006-12-01|title=Democracy among Strangers: Term Limits' Effects on Relationships between State Legislators in Michigan|journal=State Politics & Policy Quarterly|language=en|volume=6|issue=4|pages=384–409|doi=10.1177/153244000600600402|s2cid=155402263|issn=1532-4400}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2018/01/18/five-reasons-to-oppose-congressional-term-limits/|title=Five reasons to oppose congressional term limits|last=Burgat|first=Casey|date=2018-01-January 18, 2018|website=Brookings|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-January 22, 2020}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mischiefsoffaction.com/post/political-science-term-limits|title=Post|website=Mischiefs of Faction|date=20 January 20, 2020|language=en|access-date=2020-01-January 22, 2020}}</ref> reduce the legislative productivity of politicians,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.legbranch.org/2018-6-19-how-do-electoral-incentives-affect-legislator-behavior/|title=How do electoral incentives affect legislator behavior?|date=2018-06-June 19, 2018|website=LegBranch|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-January 22, 2020}}</ref> weaken legislatures vis-à-vis the executive,<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ppic.org/publication/adapting-to-term-limits-recent-experiences-and-new-directions/|title=Adapting to Term Limits: Recent Experiences and New Directions|website=Public Policy Institute of California|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-January 22, 2020}}</ref> and reduce voter turnout.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Nalder|first=Kimberly|date=2007|title=The Effect of State Legislative Term Limits on Voter Turnout|journal=State Politics & Policy Quarterly|volume=7|issue=2|pages=187–210|doi=10.1177/153244000700700207|jstor=40421578|s2cid=155278603|issn=1532-4400}}</ref> Parties respond to the implementation of term limits by recruiting candidates for office on more partisan lines.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Masket|first1=Seth|last2=Shor|first2=Boris|date=March 1, 2015-03-01|title=Polarization without Parties: Term Limits and Legislative Partisanship in Nebraska's Unicameral Legislature|journal=State Politics & Policy Quarterly|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=67–90|doi=10.1177/1532440014564984|s2cid=156175167|issn=1532-4400}}</ref> States that implement term limits in the state legislatures are associated with also developing more powerful House speakers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shay|first=Laine P.|date=2020|title=Do Term Limits "Limit" the Speaker? Examining the Effects of Legislative Term Limits on State Speaker Power|journal=State Politics & Policy Quarterly|volume=21|issue=2|language=en|pages=139–164|doi=10.1177/1532440020947643|s2cid=225428974 |issn=1532-4400|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Term limits have not proven to reduce campaign spending,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Masket|first1=Seth E.|last2=Lewis|first2=Jeffrey B.|date=March 1, 2007-03-01|title=A Return to Normalcy? Revisiting the Effects of Term Limits on Competitiveness and Spending in California Assembly Elections|journal=State Politics & Policy Quarterly|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=20–38|doi=10.1177/153244000700700102|s2cid=154582109|issn=1532-4400}}</ref> reducedreduce the gender gap in political representation,<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Carroll|first1=Susan J.|author-link1=Susan J. Carroll|last2=Jenkins|first2=Krista|date=2001|title=Do Term Limits Help Women Get Elected?|journal=Social Science Quarterly|language=en|volume=82|issue=1|pages=197–201|doi=10.1111/0038-4941.00017|issn=1540-6237}}</ref> increasedincrease the diversity of law-makers,<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Carey|first1=John M.|last2=Niemi|first2=Richard G.|last3=Powell|first3=Lynda W.|last4=Moncrief|first4=Gary F.|date=2006|title=The Effects of Term Limits on State Legislatures: A New Survey of the 50 States|journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly|language=en|volume=31|issue=1|pages=105–134|doi=10.3162/036298006X201742|issn=1939-9162}}</ref> or increasedincrease the constituent service activities of law-makers.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=VanDusky‐AllenVanDusky-Allen|first=Julie|date=2014|title=The Conditional Effect of Term Limits on Electoral Activities|journal=Politics & Policy|language=es|volume=42|issue=3|pages=431–458|doi=10.1111/polp.12072|issn=1747-1346|url=https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/polsci_facpubs/173}}</ref> Term limits have been linked to lower growth in revenues and expenditures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holcombe|first1=Randall G.|last2=Gmeiner|first2=Robert J.|date=April 2019|title=Term limits and state budgets|journal=Journal of Public Finance and Public Choice|volume=34|number=1|pages=21–36|doi=10.1332/251569119X15526464720315|s2cid=188467004 }}</ref>

*{{cite journal |first=Robert Jr. |last=Struble |url=http://www.tell-usa.org/totl/13-publications_files/PSQ_House_Turnover_1979.pdf |title=House Turnover and the Principle of Rotation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011082927/http://www.tell-usa.org/totl/13-publications_files/PSQ_House_Turnover_1979.pdf |archive-date=2010-10-October 11, 2010 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=94 |date=Winter 1979–1980 |url-status=dead}}

*{{cite book |first=Robert Jr. |last=Struble |title=Treatise on Twelve Lights |date=2010 |chapter=Rotation in Office, and other democratic reforms |chapter-url=http://www.tell-usa.org/totl/06-Rotation%20&%20other%20reforms.htm#Part_2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411104723/http://www.tell-usa.org/totl/06-Rotation%20%26%20other%20reforms.htm#Part_2 |archive-date=2016-04-April 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}

* {{cite encyclopedia |last=O'Keefe |first= Eric |title= Term Limits |author-link=Eric O'Keefe (political activist) | editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n308 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages= 504–06 |chapter= Term Limits }}