Bertelsmann: Difference between revisions

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| logo = Bertelsmann 2011 logo.svg
| logo_size = 250px
| logo_caption = Logo used since 2011
| image = Bertelsmann Corporate Center Gütersloh 2011.jpg
| image_caption = Headquarters in [[Gütersloh]]
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| location_country = Germany
| area_served = [[World]]wide
| key_people = {{ublist|[[Thomas Rabe (manager)|Thomas Rabe]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://next.ft.com/content/8411d7b0-caf0-11e3-9c6a-00144feabdc0|title=Thomas Rabe, Bertelsmann CEO: from punk rock to family values|author1=Henry Mance|author2=Jeevan Vasagar|date=27 April 2014|access-date=19 May 2016|website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref><br />([[Chairmanchairman]] and [[Chief Executiveexecutive Officerofficer|CEO]])|[[Christoph Mohn]]<ref>{{cite news|first=Christian|last= Müssgens|language=de|date=30 August 2012|title=Ein Familienwächter für Bertelsmann|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/christoph-mohn-ein-familienwaechter-fuer-bertelsmann-11873336.html|website=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]]|access-date=19 May 2016}}</ref><br/> ([[Chairmanchairman]] of the [[Supervisory Board]])|[[Liz Mohn|Elisabeth Mohn]]<br/>(Vice-chair of the board)}}
| industry = [[Mass media]]
| products = [[Publishing]], [[record label]], [[broadcasting]], [[cable television]], [[film production]]
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}}
 
The '''Bertelsmann SE & Co. KGaA''', commonly known as '''Bertelsmann''' ({{IPA-|de|ˈbɛʁtl̩sˌman|-|De-Bertelsmann.ogg}}), is a German [[privately held company|private]] [[multinational corporation|multinational]] [[conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]] [[corporation]] based in [[Gütersloh]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Germany]]. It is one of the world's largest [[media conglomerate]]s and is also active in the [[service sector]] and [[educational technology|education]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nordicom.gu.se/en/media-trends/news/worlds-largest-media-corporations-2015|title=The World's Largest Media Corporations, 2015|publisher=[[Nordicom|Nordic Information Centre for Media and Communication Research]]|date=15 June 2015|access-date=19 May 2016|first=Ulrika|last=Facht|archive-date=15 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015173453/http://www.nordicom.gu.se/en/media-trends/news/worlds-largest-media-corporations-2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bertelsmann stellt sich breiter auf|language=de|website=[[Der Tagesspiegel]]|date=22 March 2016|access-date=19 May 2016|first=Henrik |last=Mortsiefer|url=http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/neue-geschaefte-hoehere-ziele-bertelsmann-stellt-sich-breiter-auf/13355618.html}}</ref>
 
Bertelsmann was founded as a [[publishing house]] by [[Carl Bertelsmann]] in 1835.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bertelsmann druckt erstes Buch|first=Stephan |last=Grimm|language=de|date=30 August 2012|newspaper=Neue Westfälische}}</ref> After [[World War II]], Bertelsmann, under the leadership of [[Reinhard Mohn]], went from being a medium-sized enterprise to a major conglomerate, offering not only books but also television, radio, music, magazines and services.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Thorsten |last=Gödecker|date=1 July 2010|title=Geschichte mit Zukunft|newspaper=Neue Westfälische}}</ref> Its principal divisions include the [[RTL Group]], [[Penguin Random House]], [[BMG Rights Management|BMG]], [[Arvato]], the [[Bertelsmann Printing Group]], the Bertelsmann Education Group and Bertelsmann Investments.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann sortiert sich neu|newspaper=Handelsblatt|first=Kai-Hinrich |last=Renner|date=23 March 2016|page=24}}</ref>
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[[File:Bertelsmann-Signet.jpg|thumb|The original C. Bertelsmann Verlag company logo as it appears on Carl Bertelsmann's tomb in Gütersloh]]
 
The nucleus of the corporation is the ''C. Bertelsmann Verlag'', a publishing house established on July 1, July 1835 by Carl Bertelsmann in Gütersloh.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann |location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=12}}</ref> Carl Bertelsmann was a representative of the "[[Minden-Ravensberg]]er Erweckungsbewegung", a [[Christian revival|Protestant revival]] movement, whose writings he published.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Singen zu Gottes Ehre und eigener Freude| newspaper=Westfalen-Blatt|date=1 July 2010}}</ref> The C. Bertelsmann Verlag, originally specialized in theological literature, expanded its publications to include school and textbooks and in the 1920s and 1930s increasingly entered into the field of light fiction.<ref>{{cite book| language=de|first=Thomas |last= Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns| publisher= Fink| location=Paderborn, Munich| year= 2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=27}}</ref>
 
=== 1933–1945 ===
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After World War II, the company portrayed itself to the Allied Control Authority as a Christian publisher that was part of the [[German resistance to Nazism|resistance to Nazism]] and allegedly persecuted. Ties to National Socialist organizations were initially denied. After it became known that erroneous, or at least inadequate, statements had been made, Heinrich Mohn stepped down as the head of the publishing house.<ref>{{cite book| title= 175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=22}}</ref> [[Reinhard Mohn]], one of his three sons, took over the C. Bertelsmann Verlag, as Hans Heinrich Mohn had been killed in the war and Sigbert Mohn was still a prisoner of war.<ref>{{cite book| language= de| first= Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns| publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=33}}</ref> In 1947, the Allies finally granted the company a publishing license.<ref>{{cite book| language=de|first=Thomas |last= Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns| publisher= Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich| year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=34}}</ref> After currency reform in 1948, there was a market slump in the book trade that also led to the next existential crisis for the C. Bertelsmann Verlag.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9| page= 135}}</ref> Under these conditions, in 1950 Bertelsmann launched the Lesering (book club) to stimulate sales.<ref>{{cite news|first=Günther |last= Bähr|title=Das allerletzte Kapitel| language=de|magazine=[[Focus (German magazine)|Focus]]|date=14 August 2015|pages=96–97}}</ref> Customers ordered books via subscription and in return received discounted prices.<ref>{{cite news| title=Letztes Kapitel vor Gericht| first=Erich|last= Reimann|newspaper=[[Wiesbadener Kurier]]|date=25 August 2015|language=de}}</ref> The business increasingly shifted from the publishing house to the sale of books, which was decisive to further growth.<ref>{{cite book|language= de|author1= Volker Ackermann| author2= Torsten Groth| author3= Markus Plate| author4= Arist von Schlippe|title=Große deutsche Familienunternehmen: Generationenfolge, Familienstrategie und Unternehmensentwicklung| publisher=[[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]]| location=Göttingen|year=2011|isbn=978-3-525-40338-9|page=82}}</ref>
 
In 1959, the C. Bertelsmann Verlag wasunderwent restructured:a restructuring. From that point onforward, theological literature was published inby the ''newly established Gütersloher Verlagshaus'', a new publishing house which was consolidated with the ''Rufer Verlag''. Fiction, poetry, and art camepublications underwere theplaced roofunder ofthe ''Sigbert Mohn Verlag''. The C. Bertelsmann Verlag focused on nonfiction books, in particular dictionaries, guidebooks, reference books and journals.<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns|publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=87}}</ref> In the 1950s and 1960s, Bertelsmann expanded its activities into new business areas. In 1956, the company entered the music market with the Bertelsmann Schallplattenring (record club). Two years later, Ariola, one of the most successful German record labels was launched,<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann wird heute 175 Jahre alt (1950–1960)|newspaper=Westfalen-Blatt|date=1 July 2010}}</ref> and virtually at the same time, the [[Sonopress]] record pressing plant was established.<ref>{{cite news|title=Superstar und Freund der Mohns|language=de|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=23 December 2014|page=3}}</ref> With the ''Kommissionshaus Buch & Ton'' (book and audio commissioning company), from which the ''Vereinigte Verlagsauslieferung'' (VVA) emerged, Bertelsmann laid the cornerstone for its service business.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jan Philip |last=Holtman|language=de|title=Pfadabhängigkeit strategischer Entscheidungen: Eine Fallstudie am Beispiel des Bertelsmann-Buchclubs Deutschland|publisher=Kölner Wiss.|location=Cologne|year=2008|isbn=978-3-937404-57-8|url=http://www.diss.fu-berlin.de/diss/receive/FUDISS_thesis_000000008114|access-date=1 October 2015|page=126}}</ref> In 1964, Bertelsmann purchased the already broken-up [[Universum Film AG|UFA]] from the [[Deutsche Bank]] and built on its presence in cinema and television.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-46162677.html|magazine=[[Der Spiegel]]|language=de|title=Klappe zu|date=15 January 1964}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann wird heute 175 Jahre alt (1960–1970)|newspaper=Westfalen-Blatt|date=1 July 2010}}</ref> In 1969, Bertelsmann acquired shares in the magazine publisher [[Gruner + Jahr]]. A merger with [[Axel Springer SE|Axel Springer]], also planned at the time, for which a loan for millions had been taken out temporarily from [[Westdeutsche Landesbank]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-45439917.html|magazine=Der Spiegel|language=de|date=9 March 1970|title=Freundlicher Moloch}}</ref> failed in 1970.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=36}}</ref>
 
=== 1971–1983 ===
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Starting in 1971, Bertelsmann operated as a [[joint-stock company]] ("{{lang|de|[[Aktiengesellschaft]]}}" or "AG"), renamed Bertelsmann AG.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=37}}</ref> The increasingly diversifying book publishers were bundled in the ''Verlagsgruppe Bertelsmann'' publishing group at the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns|publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|pages=88}}</ref> In 1972, this company moved from Gütersloh to Munich.<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns|publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=91}}</ref> Key divisions remained in Gütersloh, for which a new office building was built in 1976 at the group's official location.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.bertelsmann.com/en/milestones/view/52|website=Chronicle|publisher=Bertelsmann|title=Gütersloh Head Office Moves to New Premises|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> To this day, it has remained the Bertelsmann headquarters, referred to as the ''Bertelsmann Corporate Center''. The rapid growth of Bertelsmann led to structural and financial problems. In the 1970s, financing requirements reached their peak. From 1975 to 1980, for example, the [[return on sales]] fell below one percent.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=43}}</ref> Bertelsmann also encountered new regulatory rules in its home market, in particular through laws governing mergers.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=40}}</ref> Larger acquisitions became practically impossible. At the same time, there was an increasing saturation of the German market for the Bertelsmann Lesering,<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns|publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=56}}</ref> whereas the foreign book clubs earned the lion's share of revenues in this corporate division.<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns|publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=57}}</ref>
 
The internationalization of Bertelsmann, initiated in the 1960s, was taken further:<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Christine |last=Hierl|title=Medienkonzentration und die Internationalisierung deutscher Medienkonzerne am Beispiel der Bertelsmann AG|year=2007|location=München|isbn=978-3-638-60658-5|publisher=GRIN Verlag}}</ref> Among other things, Bertelsmann acquired shares in the publishing houses Plaza & Janés<ref>{{cite news|website=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung|language=de|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/chronologie-die-bertelsmann-geschichte-173907.html|title=Chronologie: Die Bertelsmann-Geschichte|date=29 July 2002|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> based in Barcelona and [[Bantam Books]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of New York City|edition=2nd|editor1=Kenneth T. Jackson|editor2=Lisa Keller|editor3=Nancy Flood|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2010}}</ref> from New York City. In the United States, a location was established for [[Ariola Records|Ariola]] and, in 1979, [[Arista Records]] was acquired from [[Columbia Pictures]].<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated--> |date= 28 July 1979|title=Columbia Pictures To Sell Record Unit |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/07/28/archives/columbia-pictures-to-sell-record-unit.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |location= |access-date=1 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated--> |date=2 October 1979 |title=COLUMBIA COMPLETES SALE OF ARISTA RECORDS UNIT |url=https://latimes.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times/137835668/ |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |location= |access-date=1 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Reinhard |last=Mohn|title=Erfolg durch Menschlichkeit und Freiheit|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2008|isbn=978-3-570-01110-2|language=de}}</ref> In the period of the [[Early 1980s recession|1979–1980 recession]], there was discussion concerning the succession of Reinhard Mohn.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|pages=44–45}}</ref> In 1981, he finally moved over to the [[supervisory board]]. Dr. Juergen Kraemer, former Finance Minister of West Germany, who had previously headed up management of Gruner + Jahr, became the new [[chairman]] and [[chief executive officer]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.manager-magazin.de/unternehmen/karriere/a-191990.html|website=[[Manager Magazin]]|title=Top-Manager Manfred Fischer ist tot|language=de|date=15 April 2002|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> With this move, Bertelsmann, for the first time, was led by a manager who was not a member of the owner family.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=http://www.zeit.de/1981/08/rueckzug-an-die-spitze|title=Rückzug an die Spitze|website=Die Zeit|first=Heinz-Günter|last= Kemmer|date=13 February 1981|access-date=20 November 2015}}</ref> Mark Wössner became Fischer's successor as chairman and chief executive officer of Bertelsmann in 1983.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|magazine=Der Spiegel|url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-14355929.html|title=Im Zweifel selbst|date=29 November 1982|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> The affair concerning the forged [[Hitler Diaries|Hitler diaries]] occurred at the beginning of his tenure, which damaged the reputation of Gruner + Jahr and Bertelsmann as a whole.<ref>{{cite news|magazine=Der Spiegel|language=de|title=Die Kehrseite|url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-14020705.html|date=30 May 1983|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/1983/28/kopflos-in-die-krise|title=Kopflos in die Krise|author1=Gunhild Freese|author2=Richard Gaul|website=Die Zeit|date=8 July 1983|access-date=20 November 2015|language=de}}</ref>
 
=== 1984–1993 ===
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In 1994, Gruner + Jahr acquired the magazines of ''[[The New York Times]]'', whereby Bertelsmann was once again able to expand its presence in foreign markets.<ref name="Bertelsmann SE & Co. KGaA"/> From 1995, there was a new business division of multimedia at Bertelsmann. Its centerpiece was [[AOL|AOL Europe]],<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns|publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=274}}</ref> a joint venture of America Online and Bertelsmann.<ref>{{cite news|website=ComputerWoche|publisher=[[International Data Group]]|language=de|url=http://www.computerwoche.de/a/minderheitsbeteiligung-und-joint-venture-beschlossen-bertelsmann-macht-gemeinsame-sache-mit-america-online-dienst,1112769|title=Minderheitsbeteiligung und Joint-venture beschlossen|date=10 March 1995|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> Prior to that, Bertelsmann had already acquired a direct share in America Online.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.golem.de/0001/5758.html|language=de|website=Golem|title=Bertelsmann: Kein Groll wegen Time Warner + AOL|first=Andreas |last=Donath|date=10 January 2000|access-date=20 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|website=StreamingMedia|url=http://www.streamingmedia.com/Articles/News/Online-Video-News/Bertelsmann-And-America-Online-Announce-Launch-Of-Strategic-Global-Alliance-And-Plan-To-Restructure-Joint-Ventures-62211.aspx|title=Bertelsmann And America Online Announce Launch Of Strategic Global Alliance And Plan To Restructure Joint Ventures|date=17 March 2000|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> The multimedia division also included ''mediaWays'' and ''Pixelpark''.<ref>{{cite news|first=Ingrid |last=Scheithauer|title=Die gesamte Wertschöpfungskette besetzen|language=de|newspaper=[[Frankfurter Rundschau]]|date=27 September 1996|page=11}}</ref> In 1997, UFA merged with ''Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion'' (CLT) to become a joint entertainment group based in [[Luxembourg]].<ref>{{cite news|magazine=Der Spiegel|title=Teuflisch intelligent|language=de|date=8 April 1996|url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-8905730.html}}</ref> With CLT-UFA, Bertelsmann was able to decisively diversify its business.<ref>{{cite news|title=Die Weichen für das TV-Geschäft der Zukunft sind gestellt|first=Gunhild |last=Freese|newspaper=[[Die Zeit]]|language=de|date=12 April 1996}}</ref> In 1998, [[Thomas Middelhoff]] succeeded Mark Wössner as Bertelsmann's chairman and chief executive officer.<ref>{{cite news|magazine=Der Spiegel|title=Neue Chefs|language=de|date=23 June 1997|url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-8732190.html}}</ref> Thomas Middelhoff had previously already been a member of the management board of the multimedia division.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article653269/Bertelsmann-will-mit-Multimedia-Milliarden-umsetzen.html|website=[[Die Welt]]|title=Bertelsmann will mit Multimedia Milliarden umsetzen|date=27 February 1996|access-date=29 March 2016}}</ref> Mark Wössner joined the supervisory board of the company and also became chairman of the Bertelsmann Stiftung.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Personalien: Wachwechsel bei Bertelsmann|newspaper=[[Börsen-Zeitung]]|date=5 July 1997|page=15}}</ref> In March 1998, Bertelsmann sold its video game publisher, BMG Interactive, to [[Take-Two Interactive]] in exchange for 16 percent of Take Two's stock.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telecompaper.com/news/bmg-interactive-acquired-by-taketwo-interactive--132878|title = BMG Interactive Acquired by Take-Two Interactive}}</ref>
 
This management change coincided with the takeover of [[Random House]].<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=http://www.berliner-zeitung.de/archiv/bertelsmann-kauft-die-us-verlagsgruppe-random-house--groesste-einzelinvestition-,10810590,9412102.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20160429082816/http://www.berliner-zeitung.de/archiv/bertelsmann-kauft-die-us-verlagsgruppe-random-house--groesste-einzelinvestition-,10810590,9412102.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 April 2016|first=Oliver|last=Herrgesell|title=Bertelsmann kauft die US-Verlagsgruppe Random House|date=24 March 1998|access-date=20 November 2015}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/1998/03/23/deals/bertelsmann/|website=[[CNN Money]]|date=23 March 1998|access-date=20 May 2016|title=Bertelsmann buys Random}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=So Why Did Newhouse Sell Random House to Bertelsmann Boys?|url=http://observer.com/1998/03/so-why-did-newhouse-sell-random-house-to-bertelsmann-boys/|first=Warren |last=St. John|date=30 March 1998|website=[[The New York Observer]]|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> With this, the group advanced to become the largest publishing group in the [[English-speaking world]].<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Bertelsmann-kauft-Random-House-11427.html|website=[[Heinz Heise|heise online]]|title=Bertelsmann kauft Random House|first=Florian |last=Rötzer|date=23 March 1998|access-date=22 November 2015}}</ref> Random House was merged with ''Bantam Doubleday Dell'',<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=58}}</ref> and the global headquarters of all Bertelsmann publishing houses were relocated to New York City.<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Thomas |last=Lehning|title=Das Medienhaus: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Bertelsmann-Konzerns|publisher=Fink|location=Paderborn, Munich|year=2004|isbn=3-7705-4035-2|page=121}}</ref> In 1999, Bertelsmann acquired the publisher [[Springer Science+Business Media]], which, among other things, was the market leader for mathematics and physics.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann will sich Springer einverleiben|newspaper=Darmstädter Echo|date=17 November 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bertelsmann erwirbt Wissenschaftsverlag|newspaper=[[Sächsische Zeitung]]|date=17 February 1999|language=de|page=20}}</ref> In the year 2000, Bertelsmann dissolved its joint venture with AOL Europe.<ref>{{cite news|first=Christian |last=Rabanus|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Bertelsmann-steigt-bei-AOL-Europe-aus-21847.html|website=heise online|language=de|title=Bertelsmann steigt bei AOL Europe aus|date=17 March 2000|access-date=20 November 2015}}</ref> The sale of the shares in the joint venture to America Online yielded billions to Bertelsmann.<ref>{{cite news|website=[[The New York Times]]|title=Bertelsmann to Sell Its Stake In Joint Ventures to AOL|first=Andrew Ross |last=Sorkin|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/18/business/bertelsmann-to-sell-its-stake-in-joint-ventures-to-aol.html|date=18 March 2000|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> In the same year, Bertelsmann and [[Pearson PLC|Pearson]] formed the [[RTL Group]] from their TV subsidiaries.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bertelsmann wird führender TV-Sender|language=de|newspaper=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]]|date=8 April 2000|page=25}}</ref> Bertelsmann initially owned a minority in the company, and gradually built up its share.<ref>{{cite book|title=175 Years of Bertelsmann: The Legacy for Our Future|publisher=C. Bertelsmann|location=Munich|year=2010|isbn=978-3-570-10175-9|page=57}}</ref> Later, Bertelsmann secured the majority of the shares in RTL through a share swap with the [[Groupe Bruxelles Lambert]] (GBL), which as a result owned 25.1% of Bertelsmann.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/feb/05/rtl.citynews|website=[[The Guardian]]|title=Bertelsmann ups RTL stake|first=Dan |last=Milmo|date=5 February 2001|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bertelsmann Acquires Control of RTL Through Share Swap for GBL's Stake|website=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB981362070246075907|first=Cecilie |last=Rohwedder|date=6 February 2001|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref>
 
=== 2001–2007 ===
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In 2019, Bertelsmann also boosted cooperation in the German content market by establishing the [[Bertelsmann Content Alliance|Content Alliance]],<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Carsten|last= Germis|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/unternehmen/bertelsmann-buendelt-sein-geschaeft-in-content-alliance-16013586.html|title=Medienkonzern: Bertelsmann bündelt sein Geschäft in Kreativ-Allianz|website=faz.net|date=29 January 2019|access-date=25 April 2019}}</ref> headed up by [[Julia Jäkel]].<ref>{{cite web|language=de|url=https://meedia.de/2019/01/29/content-alliance-bertelsmann-vernetzt-inhalte-produktion-im-konzern-unter-leitung-von-gj-chefin-julia-jaekel/|title=Content Alliance: Bertelsmann vernetzt Inhalte-Produktion im Konzern unter Leitung von G+J-Chefin Julia Jäkel|website=meedia.de|date=29 January 2019|access-date=26 April 2019}}</ref> The key players in this initiative involve the television and radio broadcasting networks of the Mediengruppe RTL Deutschland, UFA TV production company, Random House publishing company, Gruner + Jahr, as well as the BMG music company.<ref>{{cite web|language=de|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/it-medien/rtl-ufa-grunerjahr-random-house-bertelsmann-will-medientoechter-als-content-alliance-buendeln/23923456.html|title=Bertelsmann will Medientöchter als "Content Alliance" bündeln|website=handelsblatt.com|date=20 January 2019|access-date=25 April 2019}}</ref> The Bertelsmann Content Alliance develops joint formats and delivers a full range of products and services for creative professionals.<ref>{{cite web|language=de|url=https://www.boersenblatt.net/2019-01-29-artikel-bertelsmann_startet_content_alliance_in_deutschland.1590122.html|title=Bertelsmann startet Content Alliance in Deutschland / Gemeinsame Formate im Fokus|website=boersenblatt.net|date=29 January 2019|access-date=18 June 2019}}</ref>
 
On 25 November 25, 2020, it was reported that Bertelsmann will acquire the American publisher [[Simon & Schuster]] from [[ViacomCBS]] for more than $2 billion.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lauer|first=Douglas Busvine, Klaus|date=2020-11-25|title=Bertelsmann buys Simon & Schuster for $2.2 billion in U.S. publishing play|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-viacomcbs-m-a-bertelsmann-idUSKBN2851E6|access-date=2020-11-25}}</ref> On 14 December 14, 2020, Bertelsmann entered talks to sell the French magazine publisher Prisma Media, a division of Gruner + Jahr, to [[Vivendi]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-12-14|title=Vivendi enters exclusive talks for Prisma Media|language=en|work=[[MarketWatch]]|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/vivendi-enters-exclusive-talks-for-prisma-media-2020-12-14|access-date=2021-05-07}}</ref> The sale was completed on 31 May 31, 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2021/film/global/vivendi-prisma-media-acquisition-1234985027|title = Vivendi Finalizes Acquisition of Leading Publishing Group Prisma Media|date = 31 May 2021}}</ref>
 
On January 29, January 2021, Bertelsmann began to explore selling its controlling stake in the French television channel [[M6 (TV channel)|M6]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Pollina|first1=Elvira|last2=Schuetze|first2=Arno|last3=Barzic|first3=Gwénaëlle|date=2021-01-29|title=EXCLUSIVE-Bertelsmann explores potential sale of French media group M6 – sources|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bertelsmann-m6-ma-idUSL1N2K40TK|access-date=2021-05-07}}</ref>
 
== Divisions ==
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[[File:RTL Group 2021.svg|frameless|right|RTL Group logo|150px]]
 
RTL Group is a leading European entertainment provider, based in [[Luxembourg]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Gelingt der digitale Umbruch?|newspaper=Handelsblatt|date=3 September 2015|language=de|page=36}}</ref> The company runs a commercial private television and radio channels in several countries, including [[RTL Television|RTL]] and [[VOX (German TV channel)|VOX]] in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rtlgroup.com/files/pdf1/facts_201509.pdf|access-date=1 October 2015|title=Companies (Selection)|publisher=RTL Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/it-medien/medienkommissar/der-medien-kommissar-die-boersenwette-namens-rtl/12316550.html|website=Handelsblatt|title=Der Medien-Kommissar: Die Börsenwette namens RTL|first=Hans-Peter |last=Siebenhaar|date=14 September 2015|access-date=1 October 2015}}</ref> In 2015, with the ''RTL Digital Hub'', the company launched a dedicated unit for [[Video clip#On the Internet|web videos]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/cmo/2015/06/08/european-broadcaster-rtl-starts-formalizing-web-video-plans/|title=European Broadcaster RTL Starts Formalizing Web Video Plans|website=The Wall Street Journal|first=Mike|last=Shields|date=8 June 2015|access-date=21 May 2016}}</ref> In addition, production companies, such as [[Fremantle (company)|Fremantle]], are part of the RTL Group.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=http://www.dwdl.de/nachrichten/45217/rtltochter_fremantlemedia_uebernimmt_495_productions/|website=DWDL|title=Zukauf in den USA: RTL-Tochter FremantleMedia übernimmt 495 Productions|first=Thomas|last=Lückerath|date=26 March 2014|access-date=1 October 2015}}</ref> In January 1997, Bertelsmann merged the UFA film and television company with [[Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion]] (CLT). The merger of CLT-UFA with ''Pearson TV'' in the year 2000 marked the beginning of the RTL Group.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=James|last=Harding|author2=Lutz Meier|title=Heute entsteht Europas größter TV-Konzern|newspaper=Financial Times|date=7 April 2000|page=1}}</ref> The company is listed on the stock exchange and has been majority-owned by Bertelsmann since 2001.<ref>{{cite news|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|url=https://articleswww.latimes.com/2001archives/la-xpm-2001-feb/-06/business/-fi-21789-story.html|title=Bertelsmann Takes Control of RTL Group|date=6 February 2001|access-date=21 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/4480770/Bertelsmann-share-swap-lifts-stake-in-RTL-to-67pc.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/4480770/Bertelsmann-share-swap-lifts-stake-in-RTL-to-67pc.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|first=George|last= Trefgarne|title=Bertelsmann share swap lifts stake in RTL to 67pc|date=6 February 2001|access-date=21 May 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Following the sale of shares in 2013, the stake is 75.1%.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=http://www.n-tv.de/wirtschaft/Bertelsmann-verkauft-Teile-von-RTL-article10562451.html|title=Bertelsmann verkauft Teile von RTL|website=[[n-tv]]|date=29 April 2013|access-date=29 March 2016}}</ref> In 2022, sales of the RTL Group were [[Euro|€]]7.2 billion.<ref name="Annual Report 2022" />
 
=== Penguin Random House ===
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[[File:BMG Rectange Logo Red RGB.svg|right|frameless|150x150px|BMG logo]]
 
BMG is a [[music publisher (popular music)|music publishing company]] based in [[Berlin]]. The BMG catalog encompasses rights to works by artists such as [[Céline Dion]], [[Jennifer Lopez]], [[Ronan Keating]] and [[Britney Spears]].<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann geht auf Einkaufstour|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=24 July 2009}}</ref> In 2008, the company was created after the group divested from the music market.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann gibt das Musikgeschäft auf|newspaper=Der Tagesspiegel|date=6 August 2008|page=15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Wachsen mit der Musik|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=31 August 2009}}</ref> Following the sale of [[Sony BMG]], Bertelsmann had retained the rights to 200, mainly European, artists.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=https://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article114029884/Bertelsmann-kauft-Musikrechteverlag-BMG-ganz.html|website=Die Welt|title=Bertelsmann kauft Musikrechteverlag BMG ganz|date=1 March 2013|access-date=30 March 2016}}</ref> In 2009, [[Kohlberg Kravis Roberts|KKR]] came on board with BMG, retaining a 51% majority in the company, and Bertelsmann held 49%.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://next.ft.com/content/e02f9700-6b44-11de-861d-00144feabdc0|title=Bertelsmann forms music duo with KKR|first=Martin|last=Arnold|author2=Andrew Edgecliffe-Johnson|date=7 July 2009|access-date=22 May 2016|website=Financial Times}}</ref> Since 2013, BMG has once again become a fully owned subsidiary of Bertelsmann.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://variety.com/2013/music/global/bertelsmann-takes-full-ownership-of-bmg-1200001514/|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|title=Bertelsmann Takes Full Ownership of BMG|first=Christopher|last=Morris|date=1 March 2013|access-date=22 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/bertelsmann-acquire-full-bmg-ownership-425514|website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|title=Bertelsmann to Acquire Full Control of BMG|first=Georg|last=Szalai|author2=Scott Roxborough|date=1 March 2013|access-date=22 May 2016}}</ref> In 2016, BMG became a division of Bertelsmann.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Da steckt Geld drin|first=Stefan|last=Schelp|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=23 March 2016|page=27}}</ref> In 2022, BMG had revenues of €866 million.<ref name="Annual Report 2022" />
 
=== Arvato ===
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[[File:Arvato_Logo.svg|frameless|right|Arvato logo|150px]]
 
Arvato is an international service provider. In its current form, the company originated in the year 1999.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann Industrie heißt künftig Arvato|newspaper=Süddeutsche Zeitung|date=9 June 1999|page=28}}</ref> At that time, the print and industry sectors at Bertelsmann were restructured, whereby services received a higher priority than the print and machinery sector back then.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Bertelsmann Drucksparte setzt verstärkt auf Dienstleistungen|newspaper=Die Welt|date=9 June 1999|page=24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Arvato auf Wachstumskurs|newspaper=Handelsblatt|date=9 June 1999|page=19}}</ref> Since the 1950s, Bertelsmann has been an active service provider,<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Michael|last=Delker|title=Der größte Arbeitgeber in Ostwestfalen-Lippe|newspaper=Westfalen-Blatt|date=1 July 2010}}</ref> delivering books for other publishing companies, for example.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arvato.com/en/about/history.html|title=About Arvato: History|publisher=Arvato|access-date=1 October 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151215060322/http://www.arvato.com/en/about/history.html|archive-date=15 December 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> To this day, ''Vereinigte Verlagsauslieferung'' (VVA) has belonged to Arvato.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Arvatos neuer Buch-Rekord|newspaper=Westfalen-Blatt|date=22 December 2011}}</ref> What'sArvato more, today Arvatoalso offers services, for example, in the areas of [[Customer Relationship Management]] (CRM), [[Supply Chain Management]] (SCM) and finance, as well as [[information technology]].<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Zuwachs in verschiedenen Sparten|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=23 March 2016|page=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Arvato expandiert nach Bielefeld|language=de|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=14 November 2013}}</ref> The main headquarters of Arvato is Gütersloh, and additional locations exist in 22 countries, including China and the United States.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Stefan|last=Schelp|title=Neuer Chef verordnet Arvato mehr Wachstum|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=24 October 2015|page=10}}</ref> In 2022, sales of Arvato reached a volume of €5.6 billion.<ref name="Annual Report 2022" />
 
=== Bertelsmann Printing Group ===
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[[File:Bertelsmann_Education_Group_Logo_2016.png|frameless|right|Bertelsmann Education Group logo|150px]]
 
The Bertelsmann Education Group is dedicated to the education sector.<ref>{{cite news|website=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/bertelsmann-to-launch-education-activities-unit-1441861958|title=Bertelsmann to Launch Education Activities Unit|first=Ellen Emmerentze |last=Jervell|date=10 September 2015|access-date=22 May 2016}}</ref> It was established in 2015 and has its headquarters in [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=http://www.focus.de/regional/nordrhein-westfalen/medien-bertelsmann-buendelt-bildungsgeschaeft-in-eigener-sparte_id_4938855.html|title=Bertelsmann bündelt Bildungsgeschäft in eigener Sparte|website=[[Focus (German magazine)|Focus Online]]|date=10 September 2015|access-date=29 March 2016}}</ref> It includes, for example, the [[Alliant International University]] and Relias Learning.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/it-medien/bertelsmann-bildungsgeschaeft-jetzt-unter-einem-dach/12303914.html|website=Handelsblatt|title=Bertelsmann: Bildungsgeschäft jetzt unter einem Dach|date=10 September 2015|access-date=29 March 2016}}</ref> The [https://www.relias.com/press-room/bertelsmann-to-acquire-relias-learning acquisition of Relias Learning] in 2014 formed the cornerstone for the Bertelsmann Education Group and was the largest acquisition by Bertelsmann since the purchase of Random House.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-21/bertelsmann-pushes-into-education-with-relias-purchase|website=Bloomberg|title=Bertelsmann Pushes Into Education With Relias Purchase|first=Kristen|last= Schweizer|date=21 October 2014|access-date=22 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Cary's Relias Learning acquired by Bertelsmann for $540M|first=Jason|last=deBruyn|date=23 October 2014|website=[[Triangle Business Journal]]}}</ref> In 2016, Relias acquired AHC Media, which was renamed Relias Media.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.relias.com/press-room/relias-learning-enters-the-acute-care-training-market/ | title=Relias Learning Enters the Acute Care Training Market | date=11 October 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.reliasmedia.com/about-us | title=About Relias Media CME/CE }}</ref> In 2022, the Bertelsmann Education Group generated sales of €622 million.<ref name="Annual Report 2022" />
 
=== Bertelsmann Investments ===
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== Criticism ==
In the 1990s, critical questions arose as to the role of Bertelsmann in [[Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Andreas|last= Puff-Trojan|title=Papier ist geduldig|magazine=[[Profil (magazine)|profil]]|date=14 October 2002|page=164}}</ref> They were precipitated by a speech given by the chairman and chief executive officer, [[Thomas Middelhoff]], on the occasion of his receiving the [[Vernon A. Walters|Vernon A. Walters Award]] 1998 in [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Ein Adler für die Bertelsfrau|first=Stefan|last=Brams|date=10 June 2008|newspaper=Neue Westfälische}}</ref> Thomas Middelhoff portrayed Bertelsmann as one of the few non-Jewish media companies shut down by the National Socialists because it allegedly published subversive literature.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Gerhard|last=Hegmann|title=Bertelsmann gesteht Fehler in NS-Zeit ein|date=8 October 2002|page=5|newspaper=Financial Times}}</ref> This interpretation was severely criticized, for example, by publicist Hersch Fischler.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|title=Ganz geringe Beträge|newspaper=[[Stuttgarter Zeitung]]|date=24 January 2000|page=13}}</ref> The speech led to a broad public debate and ultimately in 1998 to the establishment of an independent historical commission (IHC) by the group.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Siegfried|last=Lokatis|title=Feldpost von Bertelsmann|newspaper=Neue Zürcher Zeitung|date=8 March 1999|page=27}}</ref> This was headed by [[Saul Friedländer]], and additional members were Norbert Frei, Trutz Rendtorff and Reinhard Wittmann. The IHC presented an interim report in the year 2000 and issued a final report in 2002.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Wieland|last=Freund|title=Bertelsmann im Dritten Reich: Der Abschlussbericht der Kommission|website=Die Welt|date=8 October 2002|url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article415011/Bertelsmann-im-Dritten-Reich-Der-Abschlussbericht-der-Kommission.html|access-date=2 May 2016}}</ref> It stated, for example, that the suggestion that the ''C. Bertelsmann Verlag'' mounted resistance against National Socialism was clearly not accurate.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Nicole|last= Adolph|title=Widerstandslegende enttarnt|newspaper=Der Tagesspiegel|date=8 October 2002|page=27}}</ref> The company's "shut-down as a publisher of the resistance" could not be proven.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Dirk|last=Fuhrig|title=Legende vom Widerstandsverlag|newspaper=Frankfurter Rundschau|date=18 January 2000|page=13}}</ref> Historian [[Volker Ullrich]] proclaimedsaid in the weekly ''[[Die Zeit]]'' that the notion of the company's being "a resistance publisher" was clearly baseless.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Volker|last=Ullrich|title=Ein Musterbetrieb|newspaper=Die Zeit|date=10 October 2002|url=http://www.zeit.de/2002/42/Ein_Musterbetrieb|access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> The files of the IHC have been publicly available in the company archives of Bertelsmann in Gütersloh since 2003.<ref>{{cite news|language=de|first=Stefan|last= Brams|title=Bertelsmanns Gedächtnis|newspaper=Neue Westfälische|date=31 May 2003}}</ref> In October 2002 the Bertelsmann conglomerate publicly expressed regret for its "conduct under the Nazis, and for later efforts to cover it up".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Landler|first1=Mark|title=Bertelsmann Offers Regret For Its Nazi-Era Conduct|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/08/world/bertelsmann-offers-regret-for-its-nazi-era-conduct.html|access-date=26 September 2017|website=The New York Times|date=8 October 2002}}</ref>
 
== See also ==