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[[File:Magna Carta.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|right|''[[Magna Carta]]'' or "Great Charter" was one of the world's first documents containing commitments by a [[sovereign]] to his people to respect certain legal rights.]]
{{Rights|By claimant}} {{Discrimination sidebar|expanded=Countermeasures}}
'''Human rights''' are [[Morality|moral]] principles
The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within [[international law]] and global and regional institutions.<ref name=twsUnitedNations/>
Many of the basic ideas that animated the [[human rights movement]] developed in the aftermath of the [[Second World War]] and the events of [[the Holocaust]],<ref name="twsGaryJBass" /> culminating in the adoption of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Paris by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1948.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simmons |first=Beth A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EfQfAwAAQBAJ |title=Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1139483483 |pages=23 |language=en}}</ref> Ancient peoples did not
== History ==
{{Main|History of human rights}}{{Expand section|More information about human rights prior to the Enlightenment|date=May 2022}}[[File:Us declaration independence.jpg|right|thumb|[[U.S. Declaration of Independence]] ratified by the [[Continental Congress]] on 4 July 1776]]
The concept of human rights has in some sense existed for centuries, although peoples have not always thought of universal human rights in the same way humans do today.{{sfnp|Freeman|2002|pp=15–17}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sutto |first1=Marco |title=Human Rights Evolution, A Brief History |journal=The CoESPU Magazine |date=2019 |volume=2019 |issue=3 |pages=18–21 |doi=10.32048/Coespumagazine3.19.3 |url=https://www.coespu.org/articles/human-rights-evolution-brief-history |access-date=6 March 2023 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306154842/https://www.coespu.org/articles/human-rights-evolution-brief-history |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/hereandnow/Part-1/short-history.htm | title=A Short History of Human Rights | access-date=6 March 2023 | archive-date=6 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306154840/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/hereandnow/Part-1/short-history.htm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/international-human-rights-law-short-history | title=International Human Rights Law: A Short History | access-date=6 March 2023 | archive-date=14 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314173537/https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/international-human-rights-law-short-history | url-status=live }}</ref>▼
Many of the basic ideas that animated the [[human rights movement]] developed in the aftermath of the [[Second World War]] and the events of [[the Holocaust]],<ref name=twsGaryJBass/> culminating in the adoption of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Paris by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1948.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simmons |first=Beth A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EfQfAwAAQBAJ |title=Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1139483483 |pages=23 |language=en}}</ref>
The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of [[Natural and legal rights|natural rights]] which appeared as part of the medieval [[natural law]] tradition. This tradition was heavily influenced by the writings of [[Paul the Apostle|St Paul's]] early Christian thinkers such as [[Hilary of Poitiers|St Hilary of Poitiers]], [[Ambrose|St Ambrose]], and [[Augustine of Hippo|St Augustine]].<ref>{{cite book|first=A. J.|last=Carlyle|title=A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West|volume=1|page=83|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorymedival00carlgoog|location=New York|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|year=1903|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608004930/https://archive.org/details/ahistorymedival00carlgoog|archive-date=2016-06-08}}</ref> Augustine was among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and rights occur naturally based on wisdom and conscience, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals, and if people are [[An unjust law is no law at all|obligated to obey laws that are unjust]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://lawexplores.com/the-philosophy-of-law-in-the-writings-of-augustine/#Fn23| title = Augustine on Law and Order — Lawexplores.com}}</ref>▼
▲
The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of [[Natural and legal rights|natural rights]], which first appeared as part of the medieval [[natural law]] tradition. It developed in new directions during the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] with such philosophers as [[John Locke]], [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], and [[Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui]], and featured prominently in the political discourse of the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]].<ref name=twsGaryJBass/> From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century,{{sfnp|Moyn|2010|p=8}} possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide, and war crimes.<ref name=twsGaryJBass/>
▲The
Spanish scholasticism insisted on a subjective vision of law during the 16th and 17th centuries: Luis de Molina, Domingo de Soto and Francisco Vitoria, members of the School of Salamanca, defined law as a moral power over one's own.50 Although they maintained at the same time, the idea of law as an objective order, they stated that there are certain natural rights, mentioning both rights related to the body (right to life, to property) and to the spirit (right to freedom of thought, dignity). The jurist Vázquez de Menchaca, starting from an individualist philosophy, was decisive in the dissemination of the term ''iura naturalia''. This natural law thinking was supported by contact with American civilizations and the debate that took place in Castile about the just titles of the conquest and, in particular, the nature of the indigenous people. In the Castilian colonization of America, it is often stated, measures were applied in which the germs of the idea of Human Rights are present, debated in the well-known [[Valladolid Debate]] that took place in 1550 and 1551. The thought of the School of Salamanca, especially through Francisco Vitoria, also contributed to the promotion of European natural law.
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==== Including environmental rights ====
In 2021 the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] officially recognized "having a clean, healthy and sustainable environment" as a human right.<ref>{{cite web |title=Access to a healthy environment, declared a human right by UN rights council |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1102582 |website=United Nations |date=8 October 2021 |access-date=21 April 2024}}</ref> In April 2024, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled,
==Promotion strategies==
===Military force===
{{Seealso|R2p|Peacekeeping}}
[[Responsibility to protect]] refers to a doctrine for [[United Nations]] member states to intervene to protect populations from atrocities. It has been cited as justification in the use of recent military interventions. An example of an intervention that is often criticized is the [[2011 military intervention in Libya|2011 military intervention]] in the [[First Libyan Civil War]] by [[NATO]] and [[Qatar]] where the goal of preventing atrocities is alleged to have taken upon itself the broader mandate of [[Regime change|removing]] the target government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Akbarzadeh|first1= Shahram|last2= Saba|first2= Arif |date=2020|title= UN paralysis over Syria: the responsibility to protect or regime change?|journal=International Politics|volume=56|issue=4|pages=536–550|doi=10.1057/s41311-018-0149-x|s2cid= 150004890|issn = 1384-5748}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Emerson|first1=Michael|date=1 December 2011|title=The responsibility to protect and regime change|publisher=Centre for European Policy Studies|url=https://aei.pitt.edu/33004/1/Dec_ME_on_R2P.pdf|access-date=4 May 2022|archive-date=6 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606232728/https://aei.pitt.edu/33004/1/Dec_ME_on_R2P.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Economic actions===
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[[Economic sanctions]] are often levied upon individuals or states who commit human rights violations. Sanctions are often criticized for its feature of collective punishment in hurting a country's population economically in order dampen that population's view of its government.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Habibzadeh|first1=Farrokh|title= Economic sanction: a weapon of mass destruction|journal=[[The Lancet]]|year=2018 |language=en|volume=392|issue=10150|pages=816–817|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31944-5 |pmid=30139528 |s2cid=52074513 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mueller|first1=John|last2=Mueller|first2=Karl|title= Sanctions of mass destruction|journal=Foreign Affairs|year=1999 |language=en|volume=78|issue=3|pages=43–53|doi=10.2307/20049279 |jstor=20049279 }}</ref> It is also argued that, counterproductively, sanctions on offending authoritarian governments strengthen that government's position domestically as governments would still have more mechanisms to find funding than their critics and opposition, who become further weakened.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/03/sanctions-against-sudan-didnt-harm-an-oppressive-government-they-helped-it/ |url-access=subscription |website=Foreign Policy |author=Nesrine Malik|date=3 July 2018|access-date=5 May 2022|title=Sanctions Against Sudan Didn't Harm an Oppressive Government — They Helped It|archive-date=5 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505001527/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/03/sanctions-against-sudan-didnt-harm-an-oppressive-government-they-helped-it/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The risk of human rights violations increases with the increase in financially vulnerable populations. Girls from poor families in non-industrialized economies are often viewed as a financial burden on the family and marriage of young girls is often driven in the hope that daughters will be fed and protected by wealthier families.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/apr/30/ethiopian-drought-leading-to-dramatic-increase-in-child-marriage-unicef-warns |first1=Lizzy |last1=Davies |title=Ethiopian drought leading to dramatic increase in child marriage Unicef warns|date=
===Informational strategies===
{{Seealso|Human rights education|Activism}}
Human rights abuses are monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments and by many independent [[non-governmental organizations]], such as [[Amnesty International]], [[Human Rights Watch]], [[World Organisation Against Torture]], [[Freedom House]], [[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]] and [[Anti-Slavery International]]. These organisations collect evidence and documentation of human rights abuses and apply pressure to promote human rights. Educating people on the concept of human rights has been argued as a strategy to prevent human rights abuses.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/holocaust-key-to-understanding-isis-1.5302945 |url-access=subscription |title=Holocaust Key to Understanding ISIS, Says UN Human Rights Chief|date=7 February 2015
===Legal instruments===
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{{blockquote|text=Human rights law, applied to a State's own citizens serves the interest of states, by, for example, minimizing the risk of violent resistance and protest and by keeping the level of dissatisfaction with the government manageable|author=Niraj Nathwani|source=''Rethinking Refugee Law''{{sfnp|Nathwani|2003|p=25}} }}
The [[Biology|biological]] theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and [[altruism]] in the context of [[natural selection]].{{sfnp|Arnhart|1998}}{{sfnp|Clayton|Schloss|2004}}<ref>Paul, Miller, Paul (2001): Arnhart, Larry. ''Thomistic Natural Law as Darwinian Natural Right'' p.1</ref> The philosopher [[Zhao Tingyang]] argues that the traditional human rights framework fails to be universal, because it arose from contingent aspects of Western culture, and that the concept of inalienable and unconditional human rights is in tension with the principle of [[justice]]. He proposes an alternative framework called "credit human rights", in which rights are tied to responsibilities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Han |first1=Sang-Jin |title=Confucianism and Reflexive Modernity: Bringing Community back to Human Rights in the Age of Global Risk Society |chapter=A Universal but Non-Hegemonic Approach to Human Rights in International Politics |date=2020 |pages=102–117 |doi=10.1163/9789004415492_008 |isbn=978-9004415492 |s2cid=214310918 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004415492/BP000007.xml |access-date=10 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=赵汀阳 |title="预付人权"：一种非西方的普遍人权理论 |url=http://ex.cssn.cn/zt/zt_rdzt/ggkfzgshkxdllsyzt/llsyzt_gggl/201812/t20181218_4795278.html |publisher=中国社会科学网 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20210518175432/http://ex.cssn.cn/zt/zt_rdzt/ggkfzgshkxdllsyzt/llsyzt_gggl/201812/t20181218_4795278.html?COLLCC=2753256016& |archivedate=
==Concepts in human rights==
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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights enshrines, by definition, rights that apply to all humans equally, whichever geographical location, state, race or culture they belong to. Proponents of cultural relativism suggest that human rights are not all universal, and indeed conflict with some cultures and threaten their survival. Rights which are most often contested with relativistic arguments are the rights of women. For example, [[female genital mutilation]] occurs in different cultures in Africa, Asia and South America. It is not mandated by any religion, but has become a tradition in many cultures. It is considered a violation of women's and girl's rights by much of the international community, and is outlawed in some countries.
Universalism has been described by some as cultural, economic or political imperialism. In particular, the concept of human rights is often claimed to be fundamentally rooted in a politically liberal outlook which, although generally accepted in Europe, Japan or North America, is not necessarily taken as standard elsewhere. For example, in 1981, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, articulated the position of his country regarding the UDHR by saying that the UDHR was "a [[Secularism|secular]] understanding of the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law.{{sfnp|Littman|1999}} The former Prime Ministers of Singapore, [[Lee Kuan Yew]], and of [[Malaysia]], [[Mahathir
{{blockquote|text=To say that freedom is Western or unAsian is to offend our traditions as well as our forefathers, who gave their lives in the struggle against tyranny and injustices.|author=[[Anwar Ibrahim]]|source=in his keynote speech to the Asian Press Forum title ''Media and Society in Asia'', 2 December 1994}}
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== Criticism ==
{{see also|Human rights inflation}}
Critics of the view that human rights are universal argue that human rights are a Western concept that "emanate from a European, [[Judeo-Christian]], and/or Enlightenment heritage (typically labeled Western) and cannot be enjoyed by other cultures that don't emulate the conditions and values of 'Western' societies."<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Shaheed |first1=Ahmed |last2=Richter |first2=Rose Parris |date=17 October 2018
==See also==
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* {{cite book|author-link=Mary Ann Glendon|last=Glendon|first=Mary Ann|year=2001|title=A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|publisher=Random House of Canada Ltd.|isbn=0375506926}}
* Gorman, Robert F. and Edward S. Mihalkanin, eds. ''Historical Dictionary of Human Rights and Humanitarian Organizations'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Humanitarian-Organizations-Dictionaries-International/dp/0810855488/ excerpt]
* Houghton
* {{cite book|author-link=Michael Ignatieff|last=Ignatieff|first=Michael|year=2001|title=Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry|location=Princeton & Oxford|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691088934}}
* Ishay, Micheline. ''The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Era of Globalization'' (U of California Press, 2008) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Human-Rights-Ancient-Globalization/dp/0520256417/ excerpt]
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{{International Criminal Law|state=collapsed}}
{{Family rights}}
{{Western culture}}{{Human rights}}
{{International human rights legal instruments}}
{{International human rights organizations}}
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{{International Criminal Court}}
{{Charity}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{Portal bar|Politics|Law|Switzerland}}
{{authority control}}
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