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{{About||the album by Benny Carter|Harlem Renaissance (album)|the basketball team|New York Renaissance}}
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The '''Harlem Renaissance''' was an intellectual and cultural revival of [[African Americans|African
Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood, many [[francophone]] black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in [[Paris]], France, were also influenced by the movement,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/08/magazine/harlem-in-the-jazz-age.html |title=Harlem in the Jazz Age |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=8 February 1987 |access-date=July 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006022705/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/08/magazine/harlem-in-the-jazz-age.html?src=pm |archive-date=October 6, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=[[Holland Cotter|Cotter, Holland]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/24/arts/art-a-1920-s-flowering-that-didn-t-disappear.html |title=ART; A 1920s Flowering That Didn't Disappear |website=The New York Times |date=24 May 1998 |access-date=July 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006022921/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/24/arts/art-a-1920-s-flowering-that-didn-t-disappear.html?src=pm |archive-date=October 6, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jcu.edu/harlem/French_Connection/page_1.htm |title=French Connection |website=Harlem Renaissance |access-date=July 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610081415/http://www.jcu.edu/harlem/French_Connection/page_1.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=
==Background==
[[File:Harlem map2.svg|alt=A map of Upper Manhattan with pink sections for Harlem|thumb|[[Harlem]] in [[Upper Manhattan]]]]
Until the end of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the [[Southern United States|South]]. During the [[Reconstruction Era]], the emancipated African Americans began to strive for civic participation, political equality, and economic and cultural self-determination. Soon after the end of the Civil War, the [[Second Enforcement Act of 1871|Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871]] gave rise to speeches by African
The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was followed by the passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1875]], part of Reconstruction legislation by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]]. During the mid-to-late 1870s, racist whites organized in the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] launched a murderous campaign of racist terrorism to regain political power throughout the South. From 1890 to 1908, they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites, trapping them without representation. They established [[white supremacy|white supremacist]] regimes of [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow]] segregation in the South and one-party block voting behind Southern [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]].
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Most of the future leading lights of what was to become known as the "Harlem Renaissance" movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents, grandparents – or they themselves – had been slaves. Their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including better-than-average education.
Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] out of the South into the [[African-American neighborhood|African
==Development==
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During the early portion of the 20th century, Harlem was the destination for migrants from around the country, attracting both people from the South seeking work and an educated class who made the area a center of culture, as well as a growing "Negro" middle class. These people were looking for a fresh start in life and this was a good place to go. The district had originally been developed in the 19th century as an exclusive suburb for the white middle and upper middle classes; its affluent beginnings led to the development of stately houses, grand avenues, and world-class amenities such as the [[Polo Grounds]] and the [[Harlem Opera House]]. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the white middle class, who moved farther north.
Harlem became an African
Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African
===Mainstream recognition of Harlem culture===
The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. In 1917, the premiere of ''Granny Maumee, The Rider of Dreams, and Simon the Cyrenian: Plays for a Negro Theater'' took place. These plays, written by white playwright [[Ridgely Torrence]], featured African
Another landmark came in 1919, when the communist poet [[Claude McKay]] published his militant sonnet "[[If We Must Die]]", which introduced a dramatically political dimension to the themes of African cultural inheritance and modern urban experience featured in his 1917 poems "Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer". Published under the pseudonym Eli Edwards, these were his first appearance in print in the United States after immigrating from Jamaica.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McKay |first=Claude |title="Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer" |journal=The Seven Arts |volume=2 |issue=6 |date=October 1917 |pages=741–742 |url=http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?id=1349201359578127&view=mjp_object |access-date=July 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505202714/http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?id=1349201359578127&view=mjp_object |archive-date=May 5, 2014}}</ref> Although "If We Must Die" never alluded to race, African
The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the African
=== Literature ===
In 1917, [[Hubert Harrison]], "The Father of Harlem Radicalism", founded the Liberty League and ''The Voice'', the first organization and the first newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro Movement". Harrison's organization and newspaper were political but also emphasized the arts (his newspaper had "Poetry for the People" and book review sections). In 1927, in the ''[[Pittsburgh Courier]]'', Harrison challenged the notion of the Renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion overlooked "the stream of literary and artistic products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present," and said the so-called "Renaissance" was largely a white invention.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://amsterdamnews.com/news/2017/02/09/harlem-renaissance/ |title=The Harlem Renaissance |date=February 9, 2017 |website=Amsterdam News |access-date=July 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727234859/https://amsterdamnews.com/news/2017/02/09/harlem-renaissance/ |archive-date=July 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loa.org/news-and-views/849-library-of-america-interviews-rafia-zafar-about-the-harlem-renaissance |title=Library of America interviews Rafia Zafar about the Harlem Renaissance |date=August 26, 2011 |website=Library of America |access-date=July 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123215016/https://www.loa.org/news-and-views/849-library-of-america-interviews-rafia-zafar-about-the-harlem-renaissance |archive-date=November 23, 2018}}</ref> Alternatively, a writer like the Chicago-based author, [[Fenton Johnson (poet)|Fenton Johnson]], who began publishing in the early 1900s, is called a "forerunner" of the Harlem Renaissance,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Poets |first=Academy of American Poets |title=About Fenton Johnson |url=https://poets.org/poet/fenton-johnson |access-date=2021-08-14 |website=Poets}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Poetry |date=2021-08-13 |title=Fenton Johnson |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/fenton-johnson |access-date=2021-08-14 |website=Poetry Foundation |language=en}}</ref> "one of the first negro revolutionary poets".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=David Levering |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5XuDwAAQBAJ&q=one+of+the+first+negro+revolutionary+poets+fenton&pg=PA752 |title=The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader |date=1995 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-017036-8 |pages=752 |language=en}}</ref>
Nevertheless, with the Harlem Renaissance came a sense of acceptance for African
Many poets of the Harlem Renaissance were inspired to tie threads of African
===Religion===
[[Christianity]] played a major role in the Harlem Renaissance. Many of the writers and social critics discussed the role of Christianity in African
The cover story for ''[[The Crisis]]'' magazine's publication in May 1936 explains how important Christianity was regarding the proposed union of the three largest Methodist churches of 1936. This article shows the controversial question of unification for these churches.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=Robert M.|author2=Carrington, Charles|title=Methodist Union and The Negro|journal=The Crisis|date=May 1936|volume=43|issue=5|pages=134–135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yFcEAAAAMBAJ}}</ref> The article "The Catholic Church and the Negro Priest", also published in ''The Crisis'', January 1920, demonstrates the obstacles that African
====Discourse====
[[File:Religion and Evolution Ad.jpg|thumb|Religion and Evolution Ad]]
Various forms of religious worship existed during this time of African
Although there were racist attitudes within the current [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic religious]] arenas, many African Americans continued to push towards the practice of a more inclusive doctrine. For example, George Joseph MacWilliam presents various experiences of rejection on the basis of his color and race during his pursuit towards priesthood, yet he shares his frustration in attempts to incite action on the part of ''The Crisis'' magazine community.<ref name=MacWilliam />
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Religious critique during this era was found in music, literature, art, theater and poetry. The Harlem Renaissance encouraged analytic dialogue that included the open critique and the adjustment of current religious ideas.
One of the major contributors to the discussion of African
[[Countee Cullen]]'s poem "Heritage" expresses the inner struggle of an African American between his past African heritage and the new [[Christian culture]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Cullen|first=Countee|title=Heritage|url=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/171329|work=Poetry Foundation|access-date=19 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221000855/http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/171329|archive-date=21 December 2013}}</ref> A more severe criticism of the Christian religion can be found in [[Langston Hughes]]'s poem "Merry Christmas", where he exposes the irony of religion as a symbol for good and yet a force for oppression and injustice.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hughes|first=Langston|title=Merry Christmas|url=http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-afro-am&month=1001&week=b&msg=SmJfPnnfMwNMBCLhBqvg8g&user=&pw=|website=H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online|publisher=New Masses|access-date=19 December 2013|date=13 January 2010}}</ref>
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Duke Ellington gained popularity during the Harlem Renaissance. According to Charles Garrett, "The resulting portrait of Ellington reveals him to be not only the gifted composer, bandleader, and musician we have come to know, but also an earthly person with basic desires, weaknesses, and eccentricities."<ref name=MUSEcullen /> Ellington did not let his popularity get to him. He remained calm and focused on his music.
During this period, the musical style of blacks was becoming more and more attractive to whites. White novelists, dramatists and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their works. Composers (including [[William Grant Still]], [[William L. Dawson (composer)|William L. Dawson]] and [[Florence Price]]) used poems written by African
==== Musical theatre ====
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===Fashion===
During the Harlem Renaissance, the African
Men wore loose suits that led to the later style known as the "[[Zoot suit|Zoot]]", which consisted of wide-legged, high-waisted, peg-top trousers, and a long coat with padded shoulders and wide lapels. Men also wore wide-brimmed hats, colored socks,<ref>White, Shane and Graham (1998). ''Stylin': African American Expressive Culture from Its Beginnings to the Zoot Suit'', pp. 248–251.</ref> white gloves and velvet-collared [[Chesterfield coat]]s. During this period, African Americans expressed respect for their heritage through a fad for leopard-skin coats, indicating the power of the African animal.
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=== Photography ===
[[James Van Der Zee]]'s photography played an important role in shaping and documenting the cultural and social life of Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance. His photographs were instrumental in shaping the image and identity of the African
Van Der Zee's studio was not just a place for taking photographs; it was also a social and cultural hub for Harlem residents.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GGG Photo Studio at Christmas {{!}} Smithsonian American Art Museum |url=https://americanart.si.edu/artwork/ggg-photo-studio-christmas-33970 |access-date=2023-02-27 |website=americanart. |language=en-US}}</ref> People would come to his studio not only to have their portraits taken, but also to socialize and to participate in the community events that he hosted. Van Der Zee's studio played an important role in the cultural life of Harlem during the early 20th century, and helped to foster a sense of community and pride among its residents.
Some notable persons photographed are [[Marcus Garvey]], the leader of the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League|Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)]], a black nationalist organization that promoted [[Pan-Africanism]] and economic independence for African Americans. Other notable black persons he photographed are [[Countee Cullen]], a poet and writer who was associated with the Harlem Renaissance; [[Josephine Baker]], a dancer and entertainer who became famous in France and was known for her provocative performances; [[W. E.
Van Der Zee's work gained renewed attention in the 1960s and 1970s, when interest in the Harlem Renaissance was revived. Van Der Zee's photographs have been featured in numerous exhibitions over the years. One notable exhibition was "Harlem on My Mind: Cultural Capital of Black America,
Van Der Zee's work was the eyes of Harlem. His photographs are recognized as important documents of African
=== Painting ===
[[Aaron Douglas (artist)|Aaron Douglas]], born in [[Kansas]] in 1899 and often referred to as the "Father of African-American Art", is one of the most affluential painters of the Harlem Renaissance.<ref name=":4">Ragar, Cheryl R. (2010). "The Douglas Legacy". ''American Studies''. '''49''' – via Mid-America American Studies Association.</ref> Through his paintings that utilize color, shape, and line, Douglas creates a collapsing of time as he merges the past, present, and future of American-American history. Fragmentation of the picture plane, geometry, and hard-edge abstraction are present in most of his paintings during the Harlem Renaissance. Douglas drew inspiration from both ancient Egyptian and Native American motifs.<ref name=":4" />
=== Sculpting ===
[[Augusta Savage]], born in Florida in 1892, was a culture, advocate, and teacher during the Harlem Renaissance who put black everyday people at the forefront of her works. In 1932, Savage founded the Savage Studio of Arts and Crafts, providing free art classes in painting, printmaking, and sculpting. She secured government funding for the school to train youths and adults. Known as a leading light within the Harlem community, Savage encouraged artists to seek financial compensation for their works, which led to the start of the Harlem Artist Guild in 1935. Augusta Savage was the only African American commissioned to create an exhibit for the 1939 World Fair in New York, where she showcased her piece ''Lift Every Voice and Sing'', which quickly became one of the most popular pieces within the fair.<ref>Nelson, Marilyn; Lawson (2022). ''Augusta Savage: the shape of a sculptor's life'' (1st ed.). New York: Christy Ottaviano Books, Little, Brown and Company. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9780316298025|<bdi>9780316298025</bdi>]].</ref>
==Characteristics and themes==
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Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the [[New Negro]], who through intellect and production of literature, art and music could challenge the pervading [[racism]] and [[stereotypes]] to promote [[progressivism|progressive]] or [[socialist]] politics, and [[racial integration|racial]] and [[social integration]]. The creation of art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race.
There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged from the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, it encompassed a wide variety of cultural elements and styles, including a [[Pan-African]] perspective, "high-culture" and "low-culture" or "low-life", from the traditional form of music to the blues and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature such as [[modernism]] and the new form of [[jazz poetry]]. This duality meant that numerous African
Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African
The Harlem Renaissance was one of primarily African
There were other whites interested in so-called "[[Primitive culture|primitive]]" cultures, as many whites viewed black American culture at that time, and wanted to see such "primitivism" in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. As with most fads, some people may have been exploited in the rush for publicity.
Interest in African
The African Americans used art to prove their [[
[[Richard Bruce Nugent]] (1906–1987), who wrote "Smoke, Lilies, and Jade", made an important contribution, especially in relation to experimental form and LGBT themes in the period.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gay Rebel of the Harlem Renaissance : Selections from the Work of Richard Bruce Nugent|first=Bruce|last=Nugent|date=2002|publisher=Duke University Press|editor1=Wirth, Thomas H.|editor2=Gates, Henry Louis Jr.|isbn=978-0822328865|location=Durham [N.C.]|oclc=48691374|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/gayrebelofharlem0000nuge}}</ref>
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The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the black experience clearly within the corpus of [[United States of America|American]] [[cultural history]]. Not only through an explosion of [[culture]], but on a [[sociology|sociological]] level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance redefined how America, and the world, viewed African Americans. The migration of Southern blacks to the North changed the image of the African American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness, and African Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally.
The progress—both symbolic and real—during this period became a point of reference from which the African
The urban setting of rapidly developing Harlem provided a venue for African Americans of all backgrounds to appreciate the variety of black life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and culture. For instance, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the artistic and intellectual imagination, which freed blacks from the establishment of past condition. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung forth in the form of a united racial identity.
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During the Harlem Renaissance, various well-known figures, including [[Claude Mckay]], [[Langston Hughes]], and [[Ethel Waters]], are believed to have had private same-gender relationships, although this aspect of their lives remained undisclosed to the public during that era.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Piercon |first=Jackson |date=2019 |title=LGBTQ Americans in the US Political System: An Encyclopedia of Activists, Voters, Candidates, and Officeholders |url=https://www.abc-clio.com/products/a5281c/ |website=ABC-CLIO |access-date=July 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525102251/https://www.abc-clio.com/products/a5281c/ |archive-date=May 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09574049908578383 |last=Balshaw |first=Maria |title=New Negroes, new women: The gender politics of the Harlem renaissance |journal=Women: A Cultural Review |volume=10 |issue=2 |date=1999 |pages=127–138 |doi=10.1080/09574049908578383 |access-date=July 26, 2023}}</ref>
In the Harlem music scene, places such as the Cotton Club and Rockland Palace routinely held [[Gay men|gay]] drag shows in addition to [[Heterosexuality|straight]] performances. [[Lesbian]] or [[bisexual]] women performers, such as blues singers [[Gladys Bentley]] and [[Bessie Smith]], were a part of this cultural movement, which contributed to a renewed interest in African
Although women's contributions to culture were often overlooked at the time, contemporary [[black feminist]] critics have endeavored to re-evaluate and recognize the cultural production of women during the Harlem Renaissance. Authors such as [[Nella Larsen]] and [[Jessie Fauset]] have gained renewed critical acclaim for their work from modern perspectives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tenrio |first=Samantha |date=2010 |title=Women-Loving Women: Queering Black Urban Space during the Harlem Renaissance |url=https://archive.urop.uci.edu/journal/journal10/06_tenorio.pdf |journal=The UCI Undergraduate Research Journal |pages=33–44 |access-date=July 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115182742/https://archive.urop.uci.edu/journal/journal10/06_tenorio.pdf |archive-date=January 15, 2023}}</ref>
Blues singer [[Ma Rainey|Gertrude "Ma" Rainey]] was known to dress in traditionally male clothing, and her blues lyrics often reflected her sexual proclivities for women, which was extremely radical at the time. Ma Rainey was also the first person to introduce blues music into [[vaudeville]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug97/blues/garber.html|title=A Spectacle in Color: The Lesbian and Gay Subculture of Jazz Age Harlem|last=Garber|first=Eric|website=American Studies at the University of Virginia|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=19 March 2016|archive-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417002354/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug97/blues/garber.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Rainey's protégé, [[Bessie Smith]], was another artist who used the blues as a way to express unapologetic views on same-gender relations, with such lines as "When you see two women walking hand in hand, just look em' over and try to understand: They'll go to those parties – have the lights down low – only those parties where women can go."<ref name=":0" /> Rainey, Smith, and artist [[Lucille Bogan]] were collectively known as "The Big Three of the Blues."<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2019 |title=Harlem Renaissance |encyclopedia=Global encyclopedia of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) history |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |last=Radesky |first=Carolyn |editor-last=Chiang |editor-first=Howard |isbn=9781787859906}}</ref>
[[File:Gladys Bentley 2.jpg|thumb|Blues singer [[Gladys Bentley]]]]
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The Harlem Renaissance was instrumental in fostering the "New Negro" movement, an endeavor by African Americans to redefine their identity free from degrading stereotypes. The Neo-New Negro movement further challenged racial definitions, stereotypes, and gender norms and roles, seeking to address normative sexuality and sexism in American society.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Hip Hop's Inheritance From the Harlem Renaissance to the Hip Hop Feminist Movement|last=Rabaka|first=Reiland|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2011|isbn=9780739164822}}</ref>
These ideas received some pushback, particularly regarding sexual freedom for women,<ref name=":1" /> which was seen as confirming the stereotype that black women were sexually uninhibited. Some members of the black bourgeoisie saw this as hindering the overall progress of the black community and fueling racist sentiments. Yet queer culture and artists defined major portions of the Harlem Renaissance; [[Henry Louis Gates Jr.]],
===Criticism of the movement===
Many critics point out that the Harlem Renaissance could not escape its [[history]] and [[culture]] in its attempt to create a new one, or sufficiently separate from the foundational elements of white, European culture. Often Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial consciousness]], resorted to mimicry of their white counterparts by adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This "mimicry" may also be called [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]], as that is typically what minority members of any [[Social constructionism|social construct]] must do in order to fit social norms created by that construct's majority.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yayla |first1=Ayşegül |title=Harlem Renaissance and its Discontents |url=https://www.academia.edu/3029842 |website=Academia |access-date= 22 April 2016}}</ref> This could be seen as a reason that the artistic and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did not overcome the presence of white-American values and did not reject these values.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro", as the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a success.{{by whom|date=September 2020}}
The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The
A major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] did not oppose the relationship between black writers and white publishers, but he was critical of works such as [[Claude McKay|Claude McKay's]] bestselling [[novel]] ''Home to Harlem'' (1928) for appealing to the "prurient demand[s]" of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness".<ref name="books.google.com"/>
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Langston Hughes spoke for most of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926) that black artists intended to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozgiGh5QAVEC&pg=PA227|title=The Life of Langston Hughes: Volume I: 1902-1941, I, Too, Sing America|first=Arnold|last=Rampersad|date=26 November 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780199760862}}</ref> Hughes in his writings also returned to the theme of racial passing, but, during the Harlem Renaissance, he began to explore the topic of homosexuality and homophobia. He began to use disruptive language in his writings. He explored this topic because it was a theme that during this time period was not discussed.<ref>"Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Death of Langston Hughes." Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Death of Langston Hughes. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 April 2015.</ref>
African
Similarly, black writers were given the opportunity to shine once the New Negro Movement gained traction as short stories, novels and poems by black authors began taking form and getting into various print publications in the 1910s and 1920s.<ref name="Werner 2017">{{Citation|last1=Werner|first1=Craig|title=African American Poetry|date=2017|url=https://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=5&sid=86cdab56-52d9-4633-81e2-608fd986e3df@sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU=#AN=125599059&db=ers|encyclopedia=Salem Press Encyclopedia of Literature|publisher=Salem Press|access-date=2019-05-21|last2=Golphin|first2=Vincent F. A.|last3=Reisman|first3=Rosemary M. Canfield}}</ref> Although a seemingly good way to establish their identities and culture, many authors note how hard it was for any of their work to actually go anywhere. Writer [[Charles W. Chesnutt|Charles Chesnutt]] in 1877, for example, notes that there was no indication of his race alongside his publication in ''Atlantic Monthly'' (at the publisher's request).<ref name="Holmes 1968 60–68">{{Cite journal|last=Holmes|first=Eugene C.|date=1968|title=Alain Locke and the New Negro Movement|journal=Negro American Literature Forum|volume=2|issue=3|pages=60–68|doi=10.2307/3041375|issn=0028-2480|jstor=3041375}}</ref>
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{{Refbegin|30em}}
*[[Shawn Amos|Amos, Shawn]], compiler. ''Rhapsodies in Black: Words and Music of the Harlem Renaissance''. Los Angeles: Rhino Records, 2000. 4 Compact Discs.
*Andrews, William L.; Frances S. Foster; [[Trudier Harris]], eds. ''The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature''. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. {{ISBN|1-4028-9296-9}}
*Bean, Annemarie. ''A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements''. London: Routledge, 1999; pp. vii + 360.
*[[William Greaves|Greaves, William]] documentary ''[[From These Roots (documentary)|From These Roots]]''.
*Hicklin, Fannie Ella Frazier.
*Huggins, Nathan. ''Harlem Renaissance''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 1973. {{ISBN|0-19-501665-3}}
*Hughes, Langston. ''The Big Sea
*Hutchinson, George. ''The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White''.
*Lewis, David Levering, ed. ''The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader''.
*Lewis, David Levering. ''When Harlem Was in Vogue''.
*Ostrom, Hans. ''A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia
*Ostrom, Hans and J. David Macey, eds. ''The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature''. 5 volumes. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005.
*Patton, Venetria K., and Maureen Honey, eds. ''Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology
*Perry, Jeffrey B. ''A Hubert Harrison Reader
*Perry, Jeffrey B. ''Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883–1918
*Powell, Richard, and David A. Bailey, eds. ''Rhapsodies in Black: Art of the Harlem Renaissance
*[[Arnold Rampersad|Rampersad, Arnold]]. ''The Life of Langston Hughes''. 2 volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 and 1988.
* Robertson, Stephen, et al., "Disorderly Houses: Residences, Privacy, and the Surveillance of Sexuality in 1920s Harlem
*Soto, Michael, ed. ''Teaching The Harlem Renaissance
*Tracy, Steven C. ''Langston Hughes and the Blues
*[[Steven Watson (author)|Watson, Steven]]. ''The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Culture, 1920–1930''. New York: [[Pantheon Books]], 1995. {{ISBN|0-679-75889-5}}
*Williams, Iain Cameron. "Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall". Continuum Int. Publishing, 2003. {{ISBN|0826458939}}
*Wintz, Cary D. ''Black Culture and the Harlem Renaissance
*Wintz, Cary D. ''Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance''. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007
{{Refend}}
===Further reading===
* Brown, Linda Rae (1990). "William Grant Still, Florence Price, and William Dawson: Echoes of the Harlem Renaissance
* Buck, Christopher (2013). ''[http://bahai-library.com/buck_america-mosaic_harlem_renaissance Harlem Renaissance]'' in: ''The American Mosaic: The African American Experience''
* Evans, Curtis J. (2008), ''The Burden of Black Religion'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-532931-5}}
* Johnson, Michael K. (2019), ''
* King, Shannon (2015). ''Whose Harlem Is This, Anyway? Community Politics and Grassroots Activism during the New Negro Era
* Lassieur, Alison. (2013)
*[[Denise Murrell|Murrell, Denise]] (2018). ''Posing Modernity: The Black Model from [[Édouard Manet|Manet]] and [[Henri Matisse|Matisse]] to Today''. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
* Padva, Gilad (2014). "Black Nostalgia: Poetry, Ethnicity, and Homoeroticism in ''Looking for Langston'' and ''Brother to Brother''". In Padva, Gilad, ''Queer Nostalgia in Cinema and Pop Culture'', pp. 199–226. Basingstock, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.▼
* Murrell, Denise, ed. (2024). ''The Harlem Renaissance and Transatlantic Modernism''. Exh. cat. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]. ISBN 9781588397737
▲* Padva, Gilad (2014). "Black Nostalgia: Poetry, Ethnicity, and Homoeroticism in ''Looking for Langston'' and ''Brother to Brother''". In Padva, Gilad, ''Queer Nostalgia in Cinema and Pop Culture'', pp. 199–226.
* Wall, Cheryl A. (2016). ''The Harlem Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press.
* Wintz, Cary D., and [[Paul Finkelman]] (2012). ''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance''. London:
==External links==
{{sister project links|d=Q829895|c=category:Harlem Renaissance|n=no|v=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|wikt=no|q=no|s=Portal:Harlem Renaissance|b=History_of_New_York_State/Modern_New_York#The_Harlem_Renaissance}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/harlem/harlem.html "A Guide to Harlem Renaissance Materials"], from the [[Library of Congress]]
* {{cite web |url=https://www.evl.uic.edu/cavern/harlem/ |title=Virtual Harlem |publisher=
* [http://www.authorsden.com/visit/viewarticle.asp?id=62700&AuthorID=25279 "The Approaching 100th Anniversary of the Harlem Renaissance"], by HR historian [[Aberjhani]]
* [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51780394 Underneath A Harlem Moon] by Iain Cameron Williams {{ISBN|0-8264-5893-9}}
* [http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/article-summary/harlem-rennaisance_magazine_article_1922#.XtB8tWhKizl ''I'd Like to Show You Harlem'' – by Rollin Lynde Hartt, ''The Independent'', April, 1921]
* [https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23636 Collection: "Artists of the Harlem Renaissance"] from the [[University of Michigan Museum of Art]]
* [https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/the-harlem-renaissance-and-transatlantic-modernism The Harlem Renaissance and Transatlantic Modernism]
* [https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/harlem-renaissance?searchResultPosition=1 Articles in ''The New York Times'' on the Harlem Renaissance, including on the 2024
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