Wikipedia

Australian frontier wars: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Undid revision 1193108940 by DaRealPrinceZuko (talk) is that in the source? If not, please provide a source that support this
Undid revision 1239398093 by 113.197.14.2 (talk) unclear what that edit did
(28 intermediate revisions by 19 users not shown)
Line 18:
| result = Colonial victory
* No treaty signed
* British system of law established,; Indigenous people dispossessed
* Indigenous population decline due to epidemics, killings, starvation, and forced migration and epidemics
* Disruption of Indigenous cultures, assimilation of many Indigenous people
| status =
Line 36:
| commander3 =
| strength1 = * [[British Army]]{{sfnp|Connor|2002|page=xii}}
* [[Australian native police|Australian Native police]]
* [[New South Wales Mounted Police|NSW Mounted Police]]
* [[Border Police of New South Wales|NSW Border Police]]
Line 46:
* Convict/settler allies
| strength3 =
| casualties1 = Minimum 2,000, highest 20,000 dead{{Sfnp|Grey|2008|p=39}}
| casualties2 = 100,000-115,000 dead{{Sfnp|Reynolds|2021|pp=191-192}}
| casualties3 =
Line 52:
}}
 
The '''Australian frontier wars''' were the violent conflicts between [[Indigenous Australians]] (including both [[Aboriginal Australians]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]]) and primarily British settlers during the [[History of Australia (1788–1850)|colonial period of Australia]].{{sfnp|Connor|2002|pages=xi–xii}}
 
The first conflict took place several months after the landing of the [[First Fleet]] in January 1788, and the last frontier conflicts occurred in the early 20th century following the [[Federation of Australia|federation of the Australian colonies]] in 1901, with some occurring as late as 1934. Conflicts occurred in a number of locations across Australia.
 
Estimates of the number of people killed in the fighting vary considerably.
 
== Background and population ==
[[File:Night Attack by Blacks.jpg|thumb|right|300px|"Night Attack by Blacks", monotone painting by [[Livingston Hopkins]]]]
In 1770 an expedition from Great Britain under the command of then-Lieutenant [[James Cook]] made the first voyage by the British along the Australian east coast. On 29 April, Cook and a small landing party fired on a group of the local [[Tharawal people|Dharawal nation]] who had sought to prevent them from landing at the foot of their camp at [[Botany Bay]], described by Cook as "a small village". Two Dharawal men made threatening gestures and threw a stone at Cook's party. Cook then ordered "a musket to be fired with small-shot" and the elder of the two was hit in a leg. This caused the two Dharawal men to run to their huts and seize their spears and shields. Subsequently, a single spear was thrown toward the British party, which "happily hurt nobody". This then caused Cook to order "the third musket with small-shots" to be fired, "upon which one of them threw another lance and both immediately ran away".{{sfn|Williams|1997|p=95}} Cook did not make further contact with people of the Dharawal nation.
 
In his voyage up the east coast of Australia, Cook claimed to have observed no signs of agriculture or other development by its inhabitants. Some historians have argued that under prevailing European legal doctrine such land was deemed ''[[terra nullius]]'' or land belonging to nobody{{Sfnp|Macintyre|1999|p=34}} or land "empty of inhabitants" (as defined by [[Emerich de Vattel]]),.{{Sfnp|Knop|2002|p=128}} so that there appeared to be no indigenous institutionsHowever, includingterra entitlementnullius towas land,not thatpart colonistsof neededBritish to take into account;law at the coloniserstime ofand Australia applied this doctrine as law until 1992, when itCook was overturnedinstructed byonly theto [[Hightake Courtpossession of Australia]]'sland decisionif inhe ''[[Mabofound vit Queensland (No 2)]]''uninhabited.<ref>{{Cite web Sfn|date=2021 Macintyre|title=Terra nullius 1999|urlp=https://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/unsettled/recognising-invasions/terra-nullius/ 39|access-date=20 October 2022 |websiteps=[[Australian2020 Museum]edition]}}</ref> Nevertheless, Cook wrote that he formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland for Britain on 22 August 1770 when on [[Possession Island (Queensland)|Possession Island]] off the west coast of [[Cape York Peninsula]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beaglehole |first1=J.C. |title=The Journals of Captain James Cook |volume=1 |date=1955 |publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=0851157440 |page=387}}</ref>
 
The British Government decided to establish a prison colony in Australia in 1786.{{Sfnp|Macintyre|1999|p=30}} The law system practiced by Indigenous Australians was not necessarily understood or recognised in any official respect by settlers (language barriers made communication extremely difficult), and the English-speaking colony abided by its own legal doctrine.{{Sfnp|Macintyre|1999|p=34}} The colony's [[Governors of New South Wales|Governor]], Captain [[Arthur Phillip]], was instructed to "live in amity and kindness" with Indigenous Australians and sought to avoid conflict.{{Sfnp|Broome|1988|p=93}}
 
The British colonisation of Australia commenced withwhen the [[First Fleet]] inestablished mid-Januarya 1788penal incolony the south-east in what is now the federal state ofat [[New SouthSydney WalesCove]] in January 1788. ThisColonisation processspread thento continued intopresent-day [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] from 1803 onward. Since then the population density of non-Indigenous people has remained highest in this region of the Australian continent. However, conflict with Aboriginal people was never as intense and bloody in the south-eastern colonies as in Queensland and the continent's northeast. More settlers, as well as Indigenous Australians, were killed on the Queensland frontier than in any other Australian colony. The reason is simple, and is reflected in all evidence and sources dealing with this subject: there were more Aboriginal people in Queensland. The territory of Queensland was the single most populated section of pre-contact Indigenous Australia, reflected not only in all pre-contact population estimates but also in the mapping of pre-contact Australia (see Horton's ''Map of Aboriginal Australia'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/map-aboriginal-australia |title=Map of Aboriginal Australia " Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet |work=ecu.edu.au |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>
 
The Indigenous population distribution illustrated below is based on two independent sources, firstly on two population estimates made by anthropologists and a social historian in 1930 and in 1988, and secondly on the basis of the distribution of known tribal land.{{sfn|Ørsted-Jensen|2011|pp=6–15}}
Line 173:
 
== General history ==
=== First occupation ===▼
[[File:Spearing of Arthur Phillip.jpg|thumb|Detail of an artwork by the [[Port Jackson Painter]] that shows the spearing of [[Arthur Phillip]], 1790]]
 
▲=== First occupation ===
Initial peaceful relations between Indigenous Australians and Europeans began to be strained several months after the [[First Fleet]] established Sydney on 26 January 1788. The local Indigenous people became suspicious when the British began to clear land and catch fish, and in May 1788 five convicts were killed and an Indigenous man was wounded. The British grew increasingly concerned when groups of up to three hundred Indigenous people were sighted at the outskirts of the colony in June.{{Sfnp|Broome|1988|p=94}} Despite this, Phillip attempted to avoid conflict, and forbade reprisals after being speared in 1790.{{Sfnp|Macintyre|1999|p=33}} He did, however, authorise two punitive expeditions in December 1790 after his huntsman was killed by an Indigenous warrior named [[Pemulwuy]], but neither was successful.{{Sfnp|Connor|2002|pp=31–33}}<ref name="Pemulwuy_ADB"/>
 
=== Coastal and inland expansion ===
During the 1790s and early 19th century the British occupied areas along the Australian coastline. These settlements initially occupied small amounts of land, and there was little conflict between the colonisers and Indigenous peoples. Fighting broke out when the settlements expanded, however, disrupting traditional Indigenous food-gathering activities, and subsequently followed the pattern of European invasion in Australia for the next 150 years.{{Sfnp|Connor|2002|pp=33–34}} Whilst the reactions of the Aboriginal inhabitants to the sudden invasion by the British were varied, they became hostile when their presence led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of their lands. European diseases decimated Indigenous populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources sometimes led to starvation.{{Sfnp|Dennis|Grey|Morris|Prior|1995|p=9}} By and large neither the Europeans nor the Indigenous peoples approached the conflict in an organizedorganised sense, with the conflict more one between groups of colonizerscolonisers and individual Indigenous groups rather than systematic warfare, even if at times it did involve British soldiers and later formed mounted police units. Not all Indigenous Australians resisted European encroachment on their lands either, whilst many also served in mounted police units and were involved in attacks on other tribes.{{Sfnp|Dennis|Grey|Morris|Prior|1995|p=9}} ColonizersColonisers in turn often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate [[massacre]]s.{{Sfnp|Dennis|Grey|Morris|Prior|1995|p=12}}{{Sfnp|Grey|1999|p=31}}
European activities provoking significant conflict included [[Squatting (pastoral)|pastoral squatting]] and [[Australian gold rushes|gold rushes]].
 
Line 190 ⟶ 189:
=== Dispersed frontiers ===
[[File:Native Australian police 1865.jpg|thumb|[[Australian native police|Native police]] in 1865]]
Fighting between Indigenous Australians and European settlers was localizedlocalised, as Indigenous groups did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. Conflict emerged as a series of violent engagements, and massacres across the continent.{{Sfnp|Macintyre|1999|p=62}} According to the historian [[Geoffrey Blainey]], in Australia during the colonial period: "In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another ... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralization".{{Sfnp|Blainey|2003|p=313}}
 
The [[Caledon Bay crisis]] of 1932–34 saw one of the last incidents of violent interaction on the "frontier" of indigenous and non-indigenous Australia, which began when the spearing of Japanese poachers who had been molesting [[Yolngu]] women was followed by the killing of a policeman. As the crisis unfolded, national opinion swung behind the Aboriginal people involved, and the first appeal on behalf of an [[Indigenous Australian]], Dhakiyarr Wirrpanda, was launched to the [[High Court of Australia]] in [[Tuckiar v The King]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Ted |last=Egan |year=1996 |title=Justice All Their Own: Caledon Bay and Woodah Island Killings 1932-1933 |isbn=0522846939 |publisher=[[Melbourne University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Tom |last1=Murray |first2=Allan |last2=Collins |publisher=[[Film Australia]] |year=2004 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/aplacetothink/html/dhakiyarr.htm |title=Dhakiyarr vs the King |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814045534/http://www.abc.net.au/aplacetothink/html/dhakiyarr.htm |archive-date=14 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="Tuckiar">{{cite AustLII|HCA|49|1934|litigants=[[Tuckiar v The King]] |parallelcite=[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1934/49.pdf (1934) 52 CLR 335] |courtname=[[High Court of Australia|High Court]]}}.</ref> Following the crisis, the anthropologist [[Donald Thomson]] was dispatched by the government to live among the Yolngu.<ref>{{citeCite bookAustralian Dictionary of Biography |url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/AS10126b.htm?hiliteid2=dhakiyarr-wirrpanda-12885 |title=Dhakiyarr Wirrpanda (1900–1934) |last=Dewar |first=Mickey |year=2005 |work=Australian Dictionary of Biography |volume=Supplementary Volume |publisher=[[Australian National University]]Supplement |access-date=29 July 2014}}</ref> Elsewhere around this time, activists like Sir [[Douglas Nicholls]] were commencing their campaigns for Aboriginal rights within the established Australian political system and the age of frontier conflict closed.
 
=== Frequent friendly relations ===
[[File:Alexander Schramm - A scene in South Australia - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Painting of Aboriginal people and European colonists coexisting in South Australia, c. 1850]]
[[File:Bungaree australian aboriginal leader.jpg|thumb|[[Bungaree]] assisted explorer [[Matthew Flinders]] and accompanied him on his circumnavigation of mainland Australia]]
Frontier encounters in Australia were not universally negative. Positive accounts of Aboriginal customs and encounters are also recorded in the journals of early European explorers, who often relied on Aboriginal guides and assistance: [[Charles Sturt]] employed Aboriginal envoys to explore the [[Murray-Darling]]; the lone survivor of the [[Burke and Wills]] expedition was nursed by local Aboriginal residents, and the famous Aboriginal explorer [[Jackey Jackey]] loyally accompanied his ill-fated friend [[Edmund Kennedy]] to [[Cape York Peninsula|Cape York]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Tim |last=Flannery |title=The Explorers |publisher=Text Publishing |date=1998}}</ref> Respectful studies were conducted by such as [[Walter Baldwin Spencer]] and [[Frank Gillen]] in their renowned anthropological study ''[[The Native Tribes of Central Australia]]'' (1899); and by [[Donald Thomson]] of [[Arnhem Land]] (c.1935–1943). In inland Australia, the skills of Aboriginal stockmen became highly regarded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naa.gov.au/about-us/publications/fact-sheets/fs224.aspx |title=The Wave Hill 'walk-off' – Fact sheet 224 |work=[[National Archives of Australia]] |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221201943/http://naa.gov.au/about-us/publications/fact-sheets/fs224.aspx |archive-date=21 December 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
Line 201 ⟶ 200:
=== Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars ===
{{Main|Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars}}
The first frontier war began in 1795 when encroaching British settlers established farms along the [[Hawkesbury River]] west of Sydney. Some of these settlements were established by soldiers as a means of providing security to the region.{{Sfnp|Macintyre|1999|p=38}} Local [[Darug people]] raided farms until Governor [[Lachlan Macquarie|Macquarie]] dispatched a detachment of the [[46th (South Devonshire) Regiment of Foot|46th Regiment of Foot]] in 1816. This detachment patrolled the Hawkesbury Valley and ended the conflict by killing 14 Indigenous Australians in an ambush on their campsite.{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=220}} Indigenous Australians led by Pemulwuy also conducted raids around [[Parramatta, New South Wales|Parramatta]] during the period between 1795 and 1802. These attacks led Governor [[Philip Gidley King]] to issue an order in 1801 which authorised settlers to shoot Indigenous Australians on sight in Parramatta, [[Georges River]] and [[Prospect, New South Wales|Prospect]] areas.<ref name="Pemulwuy_ADB">{{citeCite bookAustralian Dictionary of Biography |urlid2=http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/AS10389b.htmpemulwuy-13147 |title=Pemulwuy (c. 1750 – 18021750–1802) |last=Kohen |first=J. L. |year=2005 |workvolume=Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=[[Australian National University]]Supplement |access-date=12 July 2009}}</ref>
 
=== Bathurst War ===
{{Main|Bathurst War}}
Conflict began again when the British expanded into inland [[New South Wales]]. Settlers who crossed the [[Blue Mountains (Australia)|Blue Mountains]] were harassed by [[Wiradjuri]] warriors, who killed or wounded stock-keepers and stock and were subjected to retaliatory killings. In response, Governor [[Thomas Brisbane|Brisbane]] proclaimed [[martial law]] on 14 August 1824 to end "the Slaughter of Black Women and Children, and unoffending White Men". It remained in force until 11 December 1824, when it was proclaimed that "the judicious and humane Measures pursued by the Magistrates assembled at Bathurst have restored Tranquillity without Bloodshed".<ref>{{cite web |title=Text of Proclamation of Martial Law |website=[[National Library of Australia]] |postscript=.Note: "Measure" made plural to align with "have". |url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/2183147}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Text of Proclamation ending Martial Law |website=[[National Library of Australia]] |url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/2183523}}</ref> There is a display of the weaponry and history of this conflict at the [[National Museum of Australia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nma.gov.au/education-kids/classroom_learning/multimedia/interactives/bells_falls_gorge |title=Bells Falls Gorge – virtual tour |work=[[National Museum of Australia]] |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-date=2 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202094814/http://www.nma.gov.au/education-kids/classroom_learning/multimedia/interactives/bells_falls_gorge |url-status=dead }}</ref> This includes a commendation by Governor [[Thomas Brisbane|Brisbane]] of the deployment of the troops under Major [[James Thomas Morisset|Morisset]]:
<blockquote>I felt it necessary to augment the Detachment at Bathurst to 75 men who were divided into various small parties, each headed by a Magistrate who proceeded in different directions in towards the interior of the Country ... This system of keeping these unfortunate People in a constant state of alarm soon brought them to a sense of their Duty, and ... [[Windradyne|Saturday]] their great and most warlike Chieftain has been with me to receive his pardon and that He, with most of His Tribe, attended the annual conference held here on the 28th Novr....<ref>Sir Thomas Brisbane to Earl Bathurst, Despatch No.18 per ship ''Mangles'',Government House, N.S. Wales, 31 December 1824.[http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/assessing_a_museum_display/bells_falls_gorge_interactive/cabinet_items/transcript_dispatch_ending_marital_law/]</ref></blockquote>
 
Line 217 ⟶ 216:
== Tasmania ==
{{See also|Aboriginal Tasmanians}}
[[File:Gov Davey's proclamation-edit2.jpg|thumb|upright|Poster issued in [[Van Diemen's Land]] during the Black War implying a policy of friendship and equal justice for white settlers and Indigenous Australians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Governor Arthur's proclamation |url=http://nationaltreasures.nla.gov.au/%3E/Treasures/item/nla.int-ex6-s52 |work=National Treasures from Australia's Great Libraries |publisher=[[National Library of Australia]] |access-date=5 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028155322/http://nationaltreasures.nla.gov.au/%3E/Treasures/item/nla.int-ex6-s52 |archive-date= 28 October 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://libapp.sl.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/spydus/FULL/PM/BSEARCH/27/442502,1 |title=Governor Daveys Proclamation to the Aborigines |year=2008 |work=Manuscripts, Oral History & Pictures |publisher=[[State Library of New South Wales]] |access-date=19 June 2009}}{{Dead link |date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>]]
 
The British established a settlement in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (modern [[Tasmania]]) in 1803. Relations with the local Indigenous people were generally peaceful until the mid-1820s when [[Pastoralism|pastoral]] expansion caused conflict over land. This led to sustained frontier warfare (the "[[Black War]]"), and in some districts farmers were forced to fortify their houses.{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=220}} Over 50 British were killed between 1828 and 1830 in what was the "most successful Aboriginal resistance in Australia's history".{{Sfnp|Broome|1988|p=96}}
Line 227 ⟶ 226:
The first British settlement in Western Australia was established by a detachment of soldiers at [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]] in 1826. Relations between the garrison and the local [[Minang people]] were generally good. Open conflict between people of the [[Noongar]] nation and European settlers broke out in Western Australia in the 1830s as the [[Swan River Colony]] expanded from [[Perth]]. The [[Pinjarra massacre]], the best known single event, occurred on 28 October 1833 when a party of British colonisers led by [[Governor of Western Australia|Governor]] [[James Stirling (Australian governor)|Stirling]] attacked an Indigenous campsite on the banks of the [[Murray River (Western Australia)|Murray River]].{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=220}}
 
The Noongar nation, forced from traditional hunting grounds and denied access to sacred sites, turned to stealing settlers' crops and killing livestock to survive. In 1831 a Noongar person was murdered for taking potatoes; this resulted in [[Yagan]] killing a servant of the household, as was the response permitted under Noongar law. In 1832 Yagan and two others were arrested and sentenced to death, but settler [[Robert Menli Lyon]] argued that Yagan was defending his land from invasion and therefore should be treated as a prisoner of war. The argument was successful and the three men were exiled to [[Carnac Island]] under the supervision of Lyon and two soldiers. The group later escaped from the island.<ref>{{Australian Dictionary of Biography |lastfirst=HasluckR. H. W. |firstlast=AlexandraReece |year=19672019 |idid2=A020578byagan-2826 |title=Yagan ( – 18331795–1833) |access-date=4 November 2008}}</ref>
 
Fighting continued into the 1840s along the [[Avon River (Western Australia)|Avon River]] near [[York, Western Australia|York]].{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=220}}
 
In the [[Busselton]] region, relations between white settlers and the [[Wardandi|Wardandi people]] were strained to the point of violence, resulting in several Aboriginal deaths. In June 1841, George Layman was speared to death by Wardandi Elder Gaywal.<ref name=chronicle>{{cite web |title=Wonnerup: a chronicle of the south-west |url=http://www.heritageaustralia.com.au/magazine.php?article=384 |last=Stirling |first=Ros |work=[[Australian Heritage magazine]] |access-date=21 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525170814/http://www.heritageaustralia.com.au/magazine.php?article=384 |archive-date=25 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to one source, Layman had got involved in an argument between Gaywal and another Wardandi person over their allocation of damper, and had pulled Gaywal's beard, which was considered a grave insult. According to another source, Layman had hired two of Gaywal's wives to work on his farm and would not let them go back to their husbands.<ref name=chronicle/><ref name=gazzette>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article642768 |title=The Western Australian Journal |newspaper=[[The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal]] |date=13 March 1841 |access-date=23 April 2011 |page=3 |publisher=[[National Library of Australia]] |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> A manhunt for Layman's killer went on for several weeks, involving much bloodshed as Captain [[John Molloy (Australian settler)|John Molloy]], the Bussell brothers, and troops murdered unknown numbers of Aboriginal residents in what has become known as the [[Wonnerup massacre]].<ref>There are no official records of the massacre and sources suggest anywhere from five to 300 were killed. A newspaper report of the time states that only five were killed: {{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article642768 |title=The Western Australian Journal |newspaper=[[The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal]] |date=13 March 1841 |access-date=23 April 2011 |page=3 |publisher=National Library of Australia |archive-url= |archive-date=}} However, according to Warren Bert Kimberly's ''[[History of West Australia]]'' (1897), relying on local memories: "The black men were killed by dozens, and their corpses lined the route of march of the avengers. ... On the sand patch near Mininup, skeletons and skulls of natives reported to have been killed in 1841 are still to be found. ... Surviving natives held the place in such terror that they would not go near to give the burial of the corpses. Even now natives refuse to disturb the bones.": {{cite book |title=s:History of West Australia |location=Melbourne |publisher=F. W. Niven |date=1897 |page=116 |title-link=s:History of West Australia}} Kimberly gives no more precise number. More recent sources quote a number of 250 to 300, though none of these appear to be supported anywhere other than the oral history of unknown origin.</ref> The posse eventually murdered Gaywal and abducted his three sons, two of whom were imprisoned on [[Rottnest Island#Aboriginal prison|Rottnest Island]].<ref name=chronicle />
[[File:Aboriginal slaves Rottnest 1883.png|thumb|210x210px|Aboriginal prisoners at Roebourne Gaol, ca.1910]]
The discovery of gold near [[Coolgardie, Western Australia|Coolgardie]] in 1892 brought thousands of prospectors onto [[Wangai|Wangkathaa]] land, causing sporadic fighting.{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=221}}
Line 275 ⟶ 274:
{{blockquote|We, the undersigned, settlers, and inhabitants of the district of Port Fairy, beg respectfully to represent to your Honor the great and increasing want of security to life and property which exists here at present, in consequence of the absence of any protection against the natives.
 
Their number, their ferocity, and their cunning render them peculiarly formidable, and the outrages of which they are daily and nightly guilty, and which they accomplish generally with impunity and success, may, we fear, lead to a still more distressing state of things, unless some measures, prompt and effective, be immediately taken to prevent matters coming to that unhappy crisis.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/71621494 |title=The settlers and the blacks of Port Fairy |newspaper=[[Southern Australian]] |date=10 June 1842 |via=Trove, [[National Library of Australia]] |access-date=4 December 2018 |language=en |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>}}
 
In the late 1840s, frontier conflict continued in the [[Wimmera]].{{Sfnp|Broome|1988|pp=102–103}}
Line 284 ⟶ 283:
The frontier wars were particularly bloody and bitter in [[Queensland]], owing to its comparatively large Indigenous population. This point is emphasised in a 2011 study by Ørsted-Jensen, which by use of two different sources calculated that colonial Queensland must have accounted for upwards of one-third and close to forty percent of the Indigenous population of the pre-contact Australian continent.{{Sfnp|Ørsted-Jensen|2011|pp=10–11}}
 
Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Loos |first=Noel |title=Frontier conflict in the Bowen district 1861–1874 |date=1970 |publisher=[[James Cook University]] of North Queensland |doi=10.25903/mmrc-5e46 |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/1136/ |access-date=11 September 2019 |type=other |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Loos |first=Noel |title=Aboriginal-European relations in North Queensland, 1861–1897 |date=1976 |publisher=[[James Cook University]] |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/10414/ |access-date=11 September 2019 |type=PhD |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of Indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony.{{Sfnp|Ørsted-Jensen|2011}} In 2009 professor Raymond Evans calculated the Indigenous fatalities caused by the [[Australian native police|Queensland Native Police Force]] alone as no less than 24,000.<ref name=Evans-2010>Evans, Raymond (October 2011) ''The country has another past: Queensland and the History Wars'', in ''Passionate Histories: Myth, memory, and Indigenous Australia'' Aboriginal History Monograph 21. Edited by Frances Peters-Little, [[Ann Curthoys]] and John Docker {{Harv|Peters-Little|Curthoys|Docker|2011}}</ref> In July 2014, Evans, in cooperation with the Danish historian Robert Ørsted-Jensen, presented the first-ever attempt to use statistical modeling and a database covering no less than 644 collisions gathered from primary sources, and ended up with total fatalities suffered during Queensland's frontier wars being no less than 66,680—with Aboriginal fatalities alone comprising no less than 65,180<ref name="ReferenceA">Evans, Raymond & Ørsted–Jensen, Robert: 'I Cannot Say the Numbers that Were Killed': Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier" (paper at AHA 9 July 2014 at University of Queensland) publisher Social Science Research Network</ref>—whereas the hitherto commonly accepted minimum overall continental deaths had previously been 20,000.{{Sfnp|Reynolds|1982|pp=121–127}}{{Sfnp|Reynolds|1987|p=53}} The 66,680 covers Native Police and settler-inflicted fatalities on Aboriginal people, but also a calculated estimate for Aboriginal inflicted casualties on whites settlers and their associates. The continental death toll of Europeans and associates has previously been roughly estimated as between 2,000 and 2,500, yet there is now evidence that Queensland alone accounted for an estimated 1,500 of these fatal frontier casualties.{{Sfnpsfnp|Grey|2008|p=39}}<ref>{{harvp|Reynolds|1982|pp=121–127}}; {{harvp|Reynolds|1987|p=53}}; {{harvp|Ørsted-Jensen|2011|pp=16–20 and Appendix A: Listing the Death Toll of the Invader}}</ref>
 
The European settlement of what is now Queensland commenced as the Moreton Bay penal settlement from September 1824. It was initially located at Redcliffe but moved south to Brisbane River a year later. Free settlement began in 1838, with settlement rapidly expanding in a great rush to take up the surrounding land in the [[Darling Downs]], Logan and Brisbane Valley and South Burnett onwards from 1840, in many cases leading to widespread fighting and heavy loss of life. The conflict later spread north to the [[Wide Bay–Burnett|Wide Bay]] and [[Burnett River]] and [[Hervey Bay]] region, and at one stage the settlement of [[Maryborough, Queensland|Maryborough]] was virtually under siege.{{Sfnp|Broome|1988|p=102}} Both sides committed atrocities, with settlers poisoning a large number of Indigenous people, for example at Kilcoy on the South Burnett in 1842 and on Whiteside near Brisbane in 1847, and Indigenous warriors killing 19 settlers during the [[Cullin-La-Ringo massacre]] on 17 October 1861.{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=220}} At the [[Battle of One Tree Hill]] in September 1843, [[Multuggerah]] and his group of warriors ambushed one group of settlers, routing them and subsequently others in the skirmishes which followed, starting in retaliation for the Kilcoy poisoning.<ref name=kerkhove>{{cite web |title=Battle of One Tree Hill and Its Aftermath |first=Ray |last=Kerkhove |date=19 August 2017 |url=https://frontierbattle.wordpress.com/battle-of-one-tree-hill-and-its-aftermath/ |access-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url= |archive-date=}} Note: Dr Ray Kerkhove, owner of this site, is a reputable historian. See [https://uniqld.academia.edu/raykerkhove here] and [https://www.boolarongpress.com.au/our-authors/authors-k/ray-kerkhove/ here].</ref><ref name=marr>{{cite news |last=Marr |first=David |title=Battle of One Tree Hill: remembering an Indigenous victory and a warrior who routed the whites |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=14 September 2019 |url=http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/sep/15/battle-of-one-tree-hill-cutting-through-silence-to-remember-a-warrior-who-routed-the-whites |access-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>
 
Queensland's Native Police Force was formed by the Government of New South Wales in 1848, under the well-connected Commandant [[Frederick Walker (explorer)|Frederick Walker]].{{Sfnp|Skinner|1975|p=26}}
Line 300 ⟶ 299:
The conflict in Queensland was the bloodiest in the history of [[Australian colonies|colonial Australia]]. Some studies give evidence of some 1,500 whites and associates (meaning Aboriginal servants, as well as Chinese, Melanesian, and other non-Europeans) killed on the Queensland frontier during the 19th century, while others suggest that upwards of 65,000 Aboriginal people were killed, with sections of Central and North Queensland witnessing particularly heavy fighting. 65,000 is, of course, an estimate, and notably much higher than the more commonly-held belief of a national minimum of 20,000 colonial Aboriginal casualties.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
 
Some sources have characterizedcharacterised these events as [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/12016000 |title=The Partial Case for Queensland Genocide |first=Ray |last=Gibbons |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://lr.law.qut.edu.au/article/view/583/564 |title=Queensland's Frontier Killing Times{{Snd}} Facing Up to Genocide |first1=Hannah |last1=Baldry |first2=Alisa |last2=McKeon |first3=Scott |last3=McDougal |journal=[[QUT Law Review]] |issn=2201-7275 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=92–113 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Colonial and modern genocide: explanations and categories |journal=[[Ethnic and Racial Studies]] |volume=21 |pages=89–115 |first=Alison |last=Palmer |doi=10.1080/014198798330115 |year=1998}}</ref><ref name="queteen">{{cite journal |title=Confronting Australian Genocide |last=Tatz |first=Colin |date=2006 |editoreditor1-first1first=Roger |editoreditor1-last1last=Maaka |editoreditor2-first2first=Chris |editoreditor2-last2last=Andersen |journal=The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives |volume=25 |pages=16–36 |publisher=[[Canadian Scholars Press]] |pmid=19514155 |isbn=978-1551303000}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Docker |first1=John |date=13 December 2014 |title=A plethora of intentions: genocide, settler colonialism and historical consciousness in Australia and Britain |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13642987.2014.987952 |journal=[[The International Journal of Human Rights]] |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=74–89 |doi=10.1080/13642987.2014.987952 |s2cid=145745263 |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=Thomas James |last2=Bain |first2=Stephen |date=3 February 2016 |title=Genocide and frontier violence in Australia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623528.2016.1120466 |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=83–100 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2016.1120466 |s2cid=147512803 |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
 
== Northern Territory ==
Line 308 ⟶ 307:
 
== Historiography ==
[[File:Aboriginal Memorial viewed from the NGA foyer May 2018.jpg|thumb|The artwork ''[[Aboriginal Memorial]]'' commemorates Indigenous Australians who lost their lives defending Country since 1788, and has been on display at the [[National Gallery of Australia]] since 1988<ref>{{cite web |title=The Aboriginal Memorial |url=https://nga.gov.au/AboriginalMemorial/history.cfm |publisher=[[National Gallery of Australia]] |access-date=13 May 2018 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>]]
Armed resistance to British invasion was generally given little attention by historians until the 1970s, and was not regarded as a "war". In 1968 [[Anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Bill Stanner|W. E. H. Stanner]] wrote that historians' failure to include Indigenous Australians in histories of Australia or acknowledge the Frontier Wars constituted a "great Australian silence". Works which discussed the conflicts began to appear during the 1970s and 1980s, and the first history of the Australian frontier told from an Indigenous perspective, [[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]]' ''[[The Other Side of the Frontier]]'', was published in 1982.{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=221}}
 
Between 2000 and 2002 [[Keith Windschuttle]] published a series of articles in the magazine ''[[Quadrant (magazine)|Quadrant]]'' and the book ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History''. These works argued that there had not been prolonged frontier warfare in Australia, and that historians had in some instances fabricated evidence of fighting. Windschuttle's claims led to the so-called "[[Australian history wars|history wars]]" in which historians debated the extent of the conflict between Indigenous Australians and European settlers.{{Sfnp|Connor|2008|p=221}}
 
The frontier wars are not commemorated at the [[Australian War Memorial]] in [[Canberra]]. The Memorial argues that the Australian frontier fighting is outside its charter as it did not involve Australian military forces. This position is supported by the [[Returned and Services League of Australia]] but is opposed by many historians, including [[Geoffrey Blainey]], [[Gordon Briscoe]], [[John Coates (general)|John Coates]], John Connor, [[Ken Inglis]], [[Michael McKernan]] and [[Peter Stanley]]. These historians argue that the fighting should be commemorated at the Memorial as it involved large numbers of Indigenous Australians and paramilitary Australian units.<ref name="War_memorial_battle">{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2502535.htm |title=War memorial battle over frontier conflict recognition |last=Peacock |first=Matt |date=26 February 2009 |work=[[The 7:30 Report]] |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|access-date=18 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526162314/http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2502535.htm |archive-date= 26 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2022, after the premiere of the [[SBS (Australian TV channel)|SBS]] documentary series ''[[The Australian Wars]]'', the War Memorial's outgoing chair, former government minister [[Brendan Nelson]] announced the Memorial's governing council would work towards a "much broader, a much deeper depiction and presentation of the violence committed against Indigenous people, initially by British, then by pastoralists, then by police, and then by Aboriginal militia".<ref name=Karvela>{{cite webnews |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-10-02/australian-war-memorial-frontier-wars-national-history-chapter/101490802 |title=The Australian War Memorial's promise of a 'deeper depiction' of the frontier wars signals an important new chapter |first=Patricia |last=Karvelas |date=2 October 2022 |access-date=22 January 2023 |publisherwork=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> In response to the announcement, filmmaker [[Rachel Perkins]] said, "In the making of our series, we worked closely with the War Memorial ... [but] I never saw this coming. I thought, 'Maybe in a generation'... but not right now ... It is a watershed moment in Australian history. It can't be underestimated, the change that this heralds."<ref>{{cite webnews |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/rachel-perkins-welcomes-war-memorials-expansion-of-frontier-conflicts-exhibits/nza1bhq8m |publisher=NITV |title=Rachel Perkins welcomes War Memorial's expansion of frontier conflicts exhibits |first=Dan |last=Butler |date=30 September 2022 |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>
 
== See also ==
Line 321 ⟶ 320:
* [[List of massacres of Indigenous Australians]]
* [[List of conflicts in Australia]]
 
=== Aboriginal Australian warriors ===
* [[Multuggerah]], Ugarapu warrior in Queensland
* [[Musquito]], Gai-Mariagal warrior in Tasmania
* [[Pemulwuy]], Bidjigal warrior in NSW
* [[Tarenorerer]], also known as Walyer, Waloa or Walloa, a rebel leader in Tasmania
Line 329:
* [[Tunnerminnerwait]], Parperloihener resistance fighter in Tasmania
* [[Windradyne]], Wiradjuri warrior and resistance leader, NSW
 
=== Comparable events in other countries ===
* [[Arauco War]], conflict between Spanish and Mapuche people in Chile
* [[Conquest of the Desert]], Argentine military campaign
Line 346 ⟶ 347:
* {{cite book |last=Blainey |first=Geoffrey |year=2003 |title=A Short History of the World |publisher=Ivan R. Dee |place=Lanham |isbn=1461709865}}
* {{cite book |last=Bottoms |first=Timothy |year=2013 |title=Conspiracy of Silence: Queensland's frontier killing times |publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |place=Sydney |isbn=978-1-74331-382-4 |url=http://www.allenandunwin.com/default.aspx?page=94&book=9781743313824}}
* {{cite book |last=Broome |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Broome |year=1988 |chapter=''The Struggle for Australia : Aboriginal-European Warfare, 1770–1930'' |pages=92–120 |editor1-last=McKernan |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Browne |editor2-first=Margaret |editor3=Australian War Memorial |title=Australia Two Centuries of War & Peace |publisher=Australian War Memorial in association with [[Allen and& Unwin]], Australia |location= Canberra, A.C.T. |isbn=0-642-99502-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Butlin |first=Noel G. |author-link=Noel Butlin |year=1983 |title=Our Original Aggression: Aboriginal Populations of Southeastern Australia, 1788–1850 |publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |place=Sydney |isbn=0868612235}}
* {{cite book |last=Coates |first=John |title=An Atlas of Australia's Wars |year=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-19-555914-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Connor |first=John |title=The Australian frontier wars, 1788–1838 |publisher=[[UNSW Press]] |location=Sydney |year=2002 |isbn=0-86840-756-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWE5r39Ed1oC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Connor |first1=John |title=The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History |editor-last=Dennis |editor-first=Peter |chapter=''Frontier Wars'' |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] Australia & New Zealand |location=Melbourne |year=2008 |edition=Second |isbn=978-0-19-551784-2 |display-editors=etal}}
Line 357 ⟶ 358:
* {{cite book |last=Grey |first=Jeffrey |title=A Military History of Australia |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Port Melbourne |year=1999 |edition=Second |isbn=0-521-64483-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Grey |first=Jeffrey |title=A Military History of Australia |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Port Melbourne |year=2008 |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-521-69791-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Knop |first=Karen |date=May 2002 |title=Diversity and Self-Determination in International Law |series=Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |place=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-78178-7 |url=http://www.cambridge.org/co/academic/subjects/law/human-rights/diversity-and-self-determination-international-law?format=HB |access-date=9 January 2013 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}
* {{cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Stuart |author-link=Stuart Macintyre |title= A Concise History of Australia |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |year=1999 |edition=First |series=Cambridge Concise Histories |isbn=0-521-62577-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000maci}}
* {{cite book |last=Ørsted-Jensen |first=Robert |year=2011 |title=Frontier History Revisited – Queensland and the 'History War' |place=Cooparoo, Brisbane, Qld |publisher=Lux Mundi Publishing |isbn=9781466386822}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Peters-Little |editor1-first=Frances |editor2-last=Curthoys |editor2-first=Ann |editor3-last=Docker |editor3-first= John |date=3 October 2011 |title=Passionate Histories: Myth, memory and Indigenous Australia |series=Aboriginal History Monograph |volume=21 |publisher=ANU-Press |doi=10.22459/PH.09.2010 |isbn=978-1-921666-64-3 |url=http://press.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Passionate+Histories%3A+Myth%2C+Memory+and+Indigenous+Australia/8271/Text/upfront.html |doi-access=free |archive-url= |archive-date=}} (Estimates of 19th century Aboriginal Frontier death toll, see "Part One, Massacres" chapter 1, The Country Has Another Past: Queensland and the History Wars by Raymond Evans).
* {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Reynolds (historian) |title=The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] Australia |location=Ringwood |year=1982 |isbn=0140224750 |title-link=The Other Side of the Frontier}}
* {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |title=Frontier: Aborigines, Settlers and Land |publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |location=Sydney |year=1987 |isbn=0-04-994005-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |title=Truth-Telling: History, Sovereignty and the Uluru Statement |date=2021 |publisher=NewSouth Publishing |location=Sydney |isbn=9781742236940}}
* {{cite book |last=Skinner |first=Leslie E. |year=1975 |title=Police of the Pastoral Frontier: Native Police, 1849–1859 |place=St. Lucia, Queensland |publisher=[[University of Queensland Press]] |isbn=0702209775}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=Glyndwr |title=Captain Cook's Voyages 1768–1779 |publisher=Folio Society |location=London |year=1997 |oclc=38549967}}
Line 370 ⟶ 371:
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|}}
* {{cite web |url=https://australianfrontierconflicts.com.au/ |title=Australian Frontier Conflicts 1788-1940s |website=Australian Frontier Wars 1788-1940 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}
* {{cite web |last=Booth |first=Andrea |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/explainer/what-were-frontier-wars |website=NITV ([[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]) |title=What are the Frontier Wars? |series=Explainer |date=18 April 2016 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Ian D. |last2=Cahir |first2=Fred |last3=Wilkie |first3=Benjamin |last4=Tout |first4=Dan |last5=Clark |first5=Jidah |title=Aboriginal Use of Fire as a Weapon in Colonial Victoria: A Preliminary Analysis |journal=[[Australian Historical Studies]] |date=27 May 2022 |volume=54 |pages=109–124 |doi=10.1080/1031461X.2022.2071954 |s2cid=249139781 }}
* {{cite book |last=Clayton-Dixon |first=Callum |title=Surviving New England: a history of Aboriginal resistance & resilience through the first forty years of the colonial apocalypse |year=2019}}
* {{cite journal |last=Connor |first=John |title=Climate, Environment and Australian Frontier Wars: New South Wales 1788-1841 |journal=[[The Journal of Military History]] |date=October 2017 |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=985–1006}}
* {{cite book |last1=Foster |first1=Robert |last2=Hosking |first2=Rick |last3=Nettleback |first3=Amanda |title=Fatal Collisions: The South Australian Frontier and the Violence of Memory |publisher=Wakefield Press |location=Kent Town |year=2001 |isbn=1-86254-533-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Gapps |first=Stephen |title=The Sydney Wars: Conflict in the early colony, 1788-1817 |date=2018 |publisher=NewSouth |location=Sydney |isbn=9781742232140}}
Line 381 ⟶ 382:
* {{cite book |last=Loos |first=Noel A. |year=1982 |title=Invasion And Resistance: Aboriginal-European Relations On The North Queensland Frontier 1861–1897 |place=Canberra, Australia; Miami, Fl, USA |publisher=[[Australian National University Press]] |isbn=0-7081-1521-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |year=2013 |title=Forgotten War |place=Sydney |isbn=9781742233925 |title-link=Forgotten War (book)}}
* {{cite webnews |last=Smith |first=Aaron |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/25/asia/aboriginal-massacre-australia-intl/index.html |title=The 'forgotten people': When death came to the Torres Strait |websitework=[[CNN]] |date=26 May 2018 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}
* {{cite book |last=Stanley |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Stanley |title=The Remote Garrison: The British Army in Australia 1788–1870 |publisher=[[Kangaroo Press]] |location=Kenthurst |year=1986 |isbn=0-86417-091-2}}
 
Line 387 ⟶ 388:
 
== External links ==
 
* [https://vimeo.com/339892160 Telling the Stories of Queensland - Frontier Wars], [[State Library of Queensland]] Vimeo
* [https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/history-and-fiction-mapping-frontier-violence-colonial-queensland-writing History and Fiction: Mapping Frontier Violence in Colonial Queensland Writing], State Library of Queensland blog
* [https://blogs.archives.qld.gov.au/queensland-frontier-wars/ Stories from the Archive: Queensland Frontier Wars], [[Queensland State Archives]]
*[https://experience.arcgis.com/experience/4755c59ae93447a9b0acf9b2b0b265f6/page/Home/#data_s=id%3AdataSource_1-18dc3aabbf7-layer-13%3A58 The South Australian Frontier and its Legacies], with interactive map
 
{{Campaignbox Australian frontier wars}}
{{British colonial campaigns}}
Line 397 ⟶ 399:
{{DEFAULTSORT:Australian Frontier Wars}}
[[Category:Australian frontier wars| ]]
[[Category:Genocides in Oceania]]
[[Category:History of Australia (1788–1850)]]
[[Category:History of Australia (1851–1900)]]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars"