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===Male-preference (cognatic) primogeniture===
[[File:Male-preference primogeniture diagram.svg|thumb|Male-preference primogeniture diagram. Legend: {{unordered list|Grey: incumbent|Square: male|Circle: female|Black: deceased|Diagonal: cannot be displaced (see [[heir apparent]])}}]]
In male-preference [[primogeniture]] (in the past called cognatic primogeniture) the monarch's eldest son and his descendants take precedence over his siblings and their descendants. Elder sons take precedence over younger sons, but all sons take precedence over daughters. A female member of a dynasty can succeed to the throne if and only if she has no living brothers and no deceased brothers who left surviving legitimate descendants. Children represent their deceased ancestors, and the senior line of descent always takes precedence over the junior line, within each gender. The right of succession belongs to the eldest son of the reigning sovereign (see [[heir apparent]]), and next to the eldest son of the eldest son. This is the system in [[Spain]] and [[Monaco]], and was the system used in the [[Commonwealth realm]]s for those born before 2011.▼
{{See also|List of female monarchs}}
▲In male-preference [[primogeniture]] (in the past called cognatic primogeniture) the monarch's eldest son and his descendants take precedence over his siblings and their descendants. Elder sons take precedence over younger sons, but all sons take precedence over daughters. A female member of a dynasty can succeed to the throne if and only if she has no living brothers and no deceased brothers who left surviving legitimate descendants. Children represent their deceased ancestors, and the senior line of descent always takes precedence over the junior line, within each gender. The right of succession belongs to the eldest son of the reigning sovereign (see [[heir apparent]]), and next to the eldest son of the eldest son
This is the system in [[Spain]] and [[Monaco]], and was the system used in the ancient kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and later, the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and finally, the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Commonwealth realm]]s (although, during the Middle Ages, Scotland also supported [[tanistry]] and [[proximity of blood]], both through the male and female lines, due to the intermingling of [[Picts|Pictish]] and Gaelic succession rules).
With respect to [[hereditary title]]s, it is usually the rule everywhere in Scotland and [[Hereditary peer#Writs of summons|baronies by writ]] in the United Kingdom, but usually these English baronies by writ go into [[abeyance]] when the last male titleholder dies leaving more than one surviving sister or more than one descendant in the legitimate female line of the original titleholder. In England, Fiefs or titles granted "in tail general" or to "heirs general" follow this system for sons, but daughters are considered equal co-heirs to each other, which can result in abeyance. In the medieval period, actual practice varied with local custom. While women could inherit manors, power was usually exercised by their husbands (''[[jure uxoris]]'') or their sons (''[[jure matris]]''). However, in Scotland, Salic law or any of its variations have never been practised, and all the hereditary titles are inherited through male-preference primogeniture, where in the extinction of a male line, the eldest sister automatically receives the titles, and rules in her own right, not in the right of her son. A famous example of this is [[Marjorie, Countess of Carrick]], mother of [[Robert the Bruce]], who was the Countess of Carrick in her own right.
It was also practised in many of the kingdoms of the Indian subcontinent from the Middle Ages to the [[Indian independence movement]]. In many of these kingdoms, adoption was allowed from a relative if a monarch did not have children, and the adopted child could succeed to the throne at the death of the monarch. An example of a king who was adopted was [[Rajaram II of Satara]], who was adopted by [[Shahu I]] (Rajaram II in turn adopted a son, [[Shahu II of Satara|Shahu II]] who ruled as the next king). Often, the wife or mother of a childless king were allowed to succeed to the throne as well and allowed to rule as queen regnants in their own right, until their death, after which the throne passed to the next closest relative. An example of this [[Didda|Queen Didda of Kashmir]], who ascended the throne of Kashmir in 980 CE after the death of her grandson and ruled until 1003 CE. Another example is [[Qudsia Begum, Begum of Bhopal|Qudsia Begum]] who became the [[Nawabs of Bhopal|Nawab of Bhopal]] in 1819 CE after the death of her husband and ruled until 1837 CE. Other famous queens include [[Rudrama Devi]], [[Keladi Chennamma]], [[Ahilyabai Holkar]] and [[Velu Nachiyar]]. [[Razia Sultana]] was a rare example of a queen who succeeded her father even when her brothers were alive. She ruled the [[Delhi Sultanate]] from 1236 to 1240 CE.
===Absolute cognatic primogeniture===
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{{main|Patrilineality#Agnatic succession}}
[[File:Agnatic primogeniture diagram.svg|thumb|Agnatic primogeniture diagram. Legend: {{unordered list|Grey: incumbent|Square: male|Black: deceased|Diagonal: cannot be displaced}}]]
The [[Salic law]], or agnatic succession, restricted the pool of potential heirs to males of the patrilineage, and altogether excluded females of the dynasty and their descendants from the succession, unless there were no living males to inherit. The Salic law applied to the former royal or imperial houses of [[Albania]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Romania]], [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], and [[Prussia]]/[[German Empire]]. It currently applies to the house of [[Princely Family of Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]], and the [[Chrysanthemum Throne]] of [[Japan]].
In 1830 in Spain the question whether or not the Salic law applied – and therefore, whether [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] should be followed by his daughter [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella]] or by his brother [[Infante Carlos, Count of Molina|Charles]] – led to a series of [[Carlist Wars|civil wars]] and the formation of a pretender rival dynasty which still exists.
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Agnatic-cognatic (or semi-Salic) succession, prevalent in much of Europe since ancient times, is the restriction of succession to those descended from or related to a past or current monarch exclusively through the [[patrilineality|male line]] of descent: descendants through females were ineligible to inherit unless no males of the [[patrilineality|patrilineage]] remained alive.
In this form of succession, the succession is reserved first to all the male dynastic descendants of all the eligible branches by order of [[primogeniture]], then upon total extinction of these male descendants to a female member of the dynasty.<ref>[[Statens offentliga utredningar|SOU]] 1977:5 ''Kvinnlig tronföljd'', p. 16.</ref> The only current monarchy that operated under semi-Salic law until recently is [[Luxembourg]], which changed to absolute primogeniture in 2011. Former monarchies that operated under semi-Salic law included Austria (later [[Austria-Hungary]]), [[Bavaria]], [[Hanover]], [[Württemberg]], [[Russia]], [[Saxony]], [[Tuscany]], and the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]].
If a female descendant should take the throne, she will not necessarily be the senior heiress by primogeniture, but usually the nearest relative to the last male monarch of the dynasty by [[proximity of blood]]. Examples are [[Christian I of Denmark]]'s succession to Schleswig-Holstein, [[Maria Theresa of Austria]] (although her right ultimately was confirmed in consequence of her victory in the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] launched over her accession), [[Marie-Adelaide, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg|Marie-Adelaide]] and [[Charlotte of Luxembourg]], [[Anne of Brittany]], as well as [[Christian IX of Denmark]]'s succession in the right of his wife, [[Louise of Hesse]].
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Some cultures pass honours down through the female line. A man's wealth and title are inherited by his sister's children, and his children receive their inheritance from their maternal uncles.
In Kerala, southern India,
The [[
===Ultimogeniture===
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[[Proximity of blood]] is a system wherein the person closest in degree of kinship to the sovereign succeeds, preferring males over females and elder over younger siblings. This is sometimes used as a gloss for "pragmatic" successions in Europe; it had somewhat more standing during the [[Middle Ages]] everywhere in Europe. In [[Outremer]] it was often used to choose regents, and it figured in some of the succession disputes over the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. It was also recognized in that kingdom for the succession of fiefs, under special circumstances: if a fief was lost to the [[Saracen]]s and subsequently re-conquered, it was to be assigned to the heir in proximity of blood of the last fief-holder.
In Scotland, [[Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale|Robert de Brus]] tried to claim the Scottish crown by order of proximity. He was not successful, but his grandson later successfully claimed the crown as [[Robert the Bruce|Robert I of Scotland]].
====Partible inheritance====
{{main|Salic patrimony}}
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=== Tanistry ===
{{main|Tanistry}}
The '''Tanistry''' is a [[Gaels|Gaelic]] system for passing on titles and lands. In this system the '''Tanist''' ({{lang-ga|[[Tánaiste]]}}; {{lang-gd|Tànaiste}}; {{lang-gv|Tanishtey}}) is the office of heir-apparent, or second-in-command, among the (royal) Gaelic [[patrilineal]] dynasties of [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Isle of Man|Mann]], to succeed to the [[Chiefs of the Name|chieftainship]] or to the [[kingship]].
Historically the tanist was chosen from among the heads of the ''roydammna'' or "righdamhna" (literally, those of ''kingly material'') or, alternatively, among all males of the ''[[Sept (social)|sept]]'', and elected by them in full assembly. The eligibility was based on descent from a king to a few degrees of proximity. Usually descent from the male lines of a king was the norm, however in Scotland, descent through the female lines of a king was also accepted, possibly because of an intermingling with the Pictish succession rules. An example of this is King [[Eochaid ab Rhun|Eochaid]] who claimed the Scottish throne as the son of the daughter of [[Kenneth MacAlpin|Kenneth I]].
The composition and the governance of the clan were built upon descent from a similar ancestor. The office was noted from the beginning of recorded history in Ireland, and probably pre-dates it. A story about [[Cormac mac Airt]] refers to his eldest son as his tanist. Following his murder by a member of the [[Deisi]], another ''roydammna'', [[Eochaid Gonnat]], succeeded as king.
The royal succession in Celtic Scotland was limited to the elective succession of the male descendants of ''Siol Alpein'' ([[House of Alpin]]) until the accession of [[Malcolm II of Scotland|King Malcolm II]] in 1005, who introduced the concept of hereditary monarchy in Scotland. He did so to try to eliminate the strife caused by the [[elective monarchy|elective law]], which encouraged rival claimants to fight for the throne. The earlier [[Picts|Pictish kingdoms]] had allowed female-line succession to the throne and in middle age Scotland, Pictish and Gaelic succession rules were intermingled. Since Malcolm had only daughters, the throne passed to his grandson through his eldest daughter and later, their descendants. The Irish monarchies, for their part, never at any stage allowed for female line succession.
==Elective succession==
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==Succession crises==
{{Further|War of succession}}
When a monarch dies without a clear successor, a succession crisis often ensues, frequently resulting in a [[war of succession]]. For example, when King [[Charles IV of France]] died, the [[Hundred Years War]] erupted between Charles' cousin, [[Philip VI of France]], and Charles' nephew, [[Edward III of England]], to determine who would succeed Charles as the [[King of France]]. When the [[Kingdom of Scotland|crown of Scotland]] became vacant in September 1290 on the death of the seven-year-old [[Margaret, Maid of Norway|Queen Margaret]], 13 claimants to the throne came forward. Where the line of succession is clear, it has sometimes happened that a [[pretender]] with a weak or spurious claim but military or political power [[Usurpation|usurps]] the throne.
In recent years researchers have found significant connections between the types of rules governing succession in monarchies and autocracies and the frequency with which coups or succession crises occur.<ref>Kurrild-Klitgaard, Peter (2000). "The constitutional economics of autocratic succession", ''Public Choice'', 103(1/2), pp. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1005078532251 63–84].</ref>
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==Republics==
{{Presidential orders of succession}}
In [[republic]]s, the requirement to ensure [[continuity of government]] at all times has resulted in most offices having some formalized order of succession. In a country with [[fixed-term election]]s, the [[head of state]] (president) is often succeeded following death, resignation, or impeachment by the [[vice president]], [[Speaker (politics)|
In states or provinces within a country, frequently a lieutenant governor or deputy governor is elected to fill a vacancy in the office of the governor.
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;Example of succession
*If the [[President of the United States]] is unable to serve, the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] takes over if able to serve. If not, the order of succession is [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]], [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President pro tempore of the Senate]], [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]], and other cabinet officials as listed in the article ''[[United States presidential line of succession]]''.
*In [[Republic of Korea]], If the president is unable to serve, the prime minister takes over if able to serve. If not, the order of succession is the minister of Economy and Finance, minister of Education etc. There is no vice president, and a new president has to be elected if the president dies or resigns.
*In [[Finland]], the president's temporary successor is the prime minister and then the ministers in the order of days spent in office, instead of in order of ministry. There is no vice president, and a new president has to be elected if the president dies or resigns.
*In [[Israel]], the president's temporary successor is the [[List of Knesset speakers|Speaker of the Knesset (the Israeli parliament)]], with the new president being elected by the parliament if the president dies or resigns.
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[[Category:Succession|*]]
[[Category:Sibling]]
[[Category:Order of succession|
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