Poultry: Difference between revisions

[[File:Poultry of the world.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Poultry of the Worldworld ({{circa|1868}})]]

'''Poultry''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|oʊ|l|t|r|i}}) are [[domesticated]] birds kept by [[human]]s for the purpose of harvesting useful [[animal product]]s such as [[meat]], [[eggEggs as (food)|eggs]] or [[feather]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|date= 2017-08-14|title=Consider These 6 Types Of Poultry For Your Farm|url= https://www.hobbyfarms.com/poultry-types-consider-farm/|access-date=2021-01-20|website=Hobby Farms|language=en-US}}</ref> The practice of [[animal husbandry|raising]] poultry is known as [[poultry farming]]. These birds are most typically members of the superorder [[Galloanserae]] ([[fowl]]), especially the order [[Galliformes]] (which includes [[chicken]]s, [[quail]]s, and [[domestic turkey|turkey]]s).<ref>{{Cite web|date= 2008-04-22|title= Fowl|url= https://animals.howstuffworks.com/birds/fowl.htm|access-date= 2021-01-20|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> The term also includes [[waterfowl]]s of the family [[Anatidae]] ([[duck]]s and [[geese]]) and other flying birds that are kept for their meat, but does not include wild birds hunted for food known as [[game (hunting)|game]] or [[wild meat|quarry]].

Chickens are medium-sized, chunky birds with an upright stance and characterised by fleshy red [[Comb (anatomy)|combs]] and [[Wattle (anatomy)|wattles]] on their heads. Males, known as cocks, are usually larger, more boldly coloured, and have more exaggerated plumage than females (hens). Chickens are gregarious, [[Omnivore|omnivorous]], ground-dwelling birds that in their natural surroundings search among the [[leaf litter]] for seeds, invertebrates, and other small animals. They seldom fly except as a result of perceived danger, preferring to run into the undergrowth if approached.<ref name=Card/> Today's domestic chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is mainly descended from the wild [[red junglefowl]] of Asia, with some additional input from [[grey junglefowl]], [[Sri Lankan junglefowl]], and [[green junglefowl]].<ref name= Eriksson>{{Citation | doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000010 | pmid = 18454198 | pmc = 2265484 | last1 = Eriksson | first1 = Jonas | last2 = Larson | first2 = Greger | last3 = Gunnarsson | first3 = Ulrika | last4 = Bed'hom | first4 = Bertrand | last5 = Tixier-Boichard | first5 = Michele | last6 = Strömstedt | first6 = Lina | last7 = Wright | first7 = Dominic | author8 = Eriksson J, Larson G, Gunnarsson U, Bed'hom B, Tixier-Boichard M | last9last8 = Vereijken | first9first8 = Addie | last10last9 = Randi | first10first9 = Ettore | last11last10 = Jensen | first11first10 = Per | last12last11 = Andersson | first12first11 = Leif | title = Identification of the yellow skin gene reveals a hybrid origin of the domestic chicken | pages = e1000010 | year = 2008 | journal = PLOS Genetics |volume=4 | issue=2|display-authors=etal | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Lawal"/>

Genomic studies estimate that the chicken was domesticated 8,000 years ago in [[Southeast Asia]]<ref name="Lawal" /> and spread to China and India 2000–3000 years later. Archaeological evidence supports domestic chickens in Southeast Asia well before 6000 BC, China by 6000 BC and India by 2000 BC.<ref name="Lawal" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=West |first1=B. |last2=Zhou |first2=B.X. |year=1988 |title=Did chickens go north? New evidence for domestication |journal=J. Archaeol. Sci. |volume=14 |issue= 5|pages=515–533|doi=10.1016/0305-4403(88)90080-5 |bibcode=1988JArSc..15..515W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Al-Nasser |first1=A. |last2=Al-Khalaifa |first2=H. |last3=Al-Saffar |first3=A. |last4=Khalil |first4=F. |last5=Albahouh |first5=M. |last6=Ragheb |first6=G. |last7=Al-Haddad |first7=A. |last8=Mashaly |first8=M. |title=Overview of chicken taxonomy and domestication |journal=World's Poultry Science Journal |date=1 June 2007 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=285–300 |doi=10.1017/S004393390700147X |s2cid=86734013 }}</ref> A landmark 2020 Nature study that fully sequenced 863 chickens across the world suggests that all domestic chickens originate from a single domestication event of red junglefowl whose present-day distribution is predominantly in southwestern China, northern Thailand and Myanmar. These domesticated chickens spread across Southeast and South Asia where they interbred with local wild species of junglefowl, forming genetically and geographically distinct groups. Analysis of the most popular commercial breed shows that the White Leghorn breed possesses a mosaic of divergent ancestries inherited from subspecies of red junglefowl.<ref>{{cite journal |title=863 genomes reveal the origin and domestication of chicken |year=2020|doi=10.1038/s41422-020-0349-y|s2cid=220050312|last1=Wang|first1=Ming-Shan|last2=Thakur|first2=Mukesh|last3=Peng|first3=Min-Sheng|last4=Jiang|first4=Yu|last5=Frantz|first5=Laurent Alain François|last6=Li|first6=Ming|last7=Zhang|first7=Jin-Jin|last8=Wang|first8=Sheng|last9=Peters|first9=Joris|last10=Otecko|first10=Newton Otieno|last11=Suwannapoom|first11=Chatmongkon|last12=Guo|first12=Xing|last13=Zheng|first13=Zhu-Qing|last14=Esmailizadeh|first14=Ali|last15=Hirimuthugoda|first15=Nalini Yasoda|last16=Ashari|first16=Hidayat|last17=Suladari|first17=Sri|last18=Zein|first18=Moch Syamsul Arifin|last19=Kusza|first19=Szilvia|last20=Sohrabi|first20=Saeed|last21=Kharrati-Koopaee|first21=Hamed|last22=Shen|first22=Quan-Kuan|last23=Zeng|first23=Lin|last24=Yang|first24=Min-Min|last25=Wu|first25=Ya-Jiang|last26=Yang|first26=Xing-Yan|last27=Lu|first27=Xue-Mei|last28=Jia|first28=Xin-Zheng|last29=Nie|first29=Qing-Hua|last30=Lamont|first30=Susan Joy|journal=Cell Research|volume=30|issue=8|pages=693–701|pmid=32581344|pmc=7395088|display-authors=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yi-Ping |last2=Wu |first2=Gui-Sheng |last3=Yao |first3=Yong-Gang |last4=Miao |first4=Yong-Wang |last5=Luikart |first5=Gordon |last6=Baig |first6=Mumtaz |last7=Beja-Pereira |first7=Albano |last8=Ding |first8=Zhao-Li |last9=Palanichamy |first9=Malliya Gounder |last10=Zhang |first10=Ya-Ping |title=Multiple maternal origins of chickens: Out of the Asian jungles |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=January 2006 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=12–19 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.09.014 |pmid=16275023 |bibcode=2006MolPE..38...12L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeder |first1=Melinda A. |last2=Emshwiller |first2=Eve |last3=Smith |first3=Bruce D. |last4=Bradley |first4=Daniel G. |title=Documenting domestication: the intersection of genetics and archaeology |journal=Trends in Genetics |date=March 2006 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=139–155 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2006.01.007 |pmid=16458995 }}</ref>

Commercial turkeys are usually reared indoors under controlled conditions. These are often large buildings, purpose-built to provide ventilation and low light intensities (this reduces the birds' activity and thereby increases the rate of weight gain). The lights can be switched on for 24&nbsp;h/day, or a range of step-wise light regimens to encourage the birds to feed often and therefore grow rapidly. Females achieve slaughter weight at about 15 weeks of age and males at about 19. Mature commercial birds may be twice as heavy as their wild counterparts. Many different breeds have been developed, but the majority of commercial birds are white, as this improves the appearance of the dressed carcass, the [[pin feather]]s being less visible.<ref>{{cite book |title=Turkeys: Behavior, Management and Well-Being|editor-last1=Pond |editor-first1=Wilson, G. |editor-last2=Bell |editor-first2=Alan, W. |year=2010 |publisher=Marcell Dekker |isbn=978-0-8247-5496-9 |pages=847–849 }}</ref> Turkeys were at one time mainly consumed on special occasions such as [[Christmas]] (10 million birds in the United Kingdom) or [[Thanksgiving]] (60 million birds in the United States). However, they are increasingly becoming part of the everyday diet in many parts of the world.

Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat in the world, accounting for about 30% of total meat production worldwide compared to [[pork]] at 38%. Sixteen billion birds are raised annually for consumption, more than half of these in industrialised, factory-like production units.<ref name="sciencenews.org">Raloff, Janet. [http://www.sciencenews.org/viewblog/generic/id/3902/titlefood-for-thought/Global_Food_Trendsglobal-food-trends Food for Thought: Global Food Trends]. Science News Online. May 3127, 2003.</ref> Global broiler meat production rose to 84.6 million tonnes in 2013. The largest producers were the United States (20%), China (16.6%), Brazil (15.1%) and the European Union (11.3%).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepoultrysite.com/reports/?id=1788 |title=USDA Livestock & Poultry: World Markets & Trade |date=April 30, 2013 |publisher=The Poultry Site |access-date=February 24, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227185757/http://www.thepoultrysite.com/reports/?id=1788 |archive-date=February 27, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are two distinct models of production; the European Union [[supply chain]] model seeks to supply products which can be traced back to the farm of origin. This model faces the increasing costs of implementing additional food safety requirements, welfare issues and environmental regulations. In contrast, the United States model turns the product into a commodity.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Manning, Louise |author2=Baines, R. N. |author3=Chadd, S. A. |year=2007 |title=Trends in the global poultry meat supply chain |journal=British Food Journal |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=332–342 |doi=10.1108/00070700710746759 }}</ref>

As of {{asof|2022|post=,}} no clinical trials have assessed poultry intake on human health.<ref>{{cite journal|authorvauthors=Connolly G, Clark CM, Campbell RE, Byers AW, Reed JB, Campbell WW. |year=2022|title=Poultry Consumption and Human Health: How Much Is Really Known? A Systematically Searched Scoping Review and Research Perspective|journal=Advances in Nutrition|volume=13|issue=6|pages=2115–2124|doi=10.1093/advances/nmac074|pmid=36351778|pmc=9776623}}</ref> Poultry meat and eggs provide nutritionally beneficial food containing protein of high quality. This is accompanied by low levels of fat which have a favourable mix of fatty acids.<ref name=FAOhealth>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/en/poultry/human_health.html |title=Poultry and human health |date=August 1, 2013 |publisher=FAO |access-date=February 25, 2014}}</ref> Chicken meat contains about two to three times as much [[polyunsaturated fat]] as most types of [[red meat]] when measured by weight.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/lipids.html |title=Feinberg School: Nutrition Fact Sheet: Lipids |publisher=Northwestern University |access-date=August 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720014201/http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/lipids.html |archive-date=July 20, 2011}}</ref> However, for boneless, skinless chicken breast, the amount is much lower. A {{Convert|100-|g serving}} of bakedraw chicken breast contains 4 {{Convert|2|g}} of fat and 31 {{Convert|22|g}} of protein, compared to 10 {{Convert|9|g}} of fat and 27 {{Convert|20|g}} of protein for the same portion of broiled,raw lean[[Cut skirtof beef|beef flank]] steak.<ref>{{citeCite web |last=United urlStates Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service |author-link=Agricultural httpResearch Service |title=FoodData Central {{!}} Chicken, breast, boneless, skinless, raw |url=https://nutritiondatafdc.selfnal.comusda.gov/factsfdc-app.html#/poultryfood-productsdetails/7032646170/2| titlenutrients |access-date= Nutrition Data 2024-03-13 100g Chicken Breast|website=fdc.nal.usda.gov}}</ref><ref>{{citeCite web |last=United urlStates Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service |author-link=Agricultural httpResearch Service |title=FoodData Central {{!}} Beef, flank, steak, boneless, choice, raw |url=https://nutritiondatafdc.nal.selfusda.comgov/factsfdc-app.html#/beeffood-productsdetails/38202646175/2| titlenutrients |access-date= Nutrition Data 2024-03-13 100g Lean Skirt Steak|website=fdc.nal.usda.gov}}</ref>

== References ==