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{{Short description|One of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church}}
{{About|one of the sacraments of the Catholic Church|confession in other religions|Confession (disambiguation)#Religion|penance in other religions|Penance|reconciliation in other religions|Reconciliation (theology)}}
{{Penance and Reconciliation}}
 
The '''Sacrament of Penance'''{{Efn|"Sacrament of Penance" is the name used in the Catholic Church's [[1983 Code of Canon Law]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/cod-iuris-canonici/eng/documents/cic_lib4-cann959-997_en.html|title=The Sacrament of Penance|website=[[1983 Code of Canon Law]]}}</ref> The ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' uses a broader range of nomenclature, calling it the "Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation", and giving the additional alternative names of "Conversion", "Confession", and "Forgiveness".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c2a4.htm|title=Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]}}</ref>}} (also commonly called the '''Sacrament of Reconciliation''' or '''Confession''') is one of the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|seven sacraments of the Catholic Church]] (known in [[Eastern Christianity]] as [[sacred mysteries]]), in which the faithful are [[absolution|absolved]] from sins committed after [[baptism]] and reconciled with the Christian community. During reconciliation, [[mortal sin]]s must be confessed and [[venial sin]]s may be confessed for devotional reasons. According to the dogma and unchanging practice of the church, only those ordained as priests may grant [[absolution]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theworkofgod.org/dogmas.htm|title=The Roman Catholic Church dogmas Doctrine of Salvation Catholic Apologetics}}</ref>
 
==Nature==
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In the middle of the 2nd century, the idea of one reconciliation/penance after baptism for the serious sins of [[apostasy]], murder, and adultery is suggested in the book of visions, [[The Shepherd of Hermas]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/post.cfm?urlslug=church-fathers-shepherd-hermas|title=Church Fathers: The Shepherd of Hermas|website=www.catholicculture.org}}</ref> The {{transliteration|grc|episkopos}} (bishop) was the main liturgical leader in a local community.<ref name=Osborne>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=brZKAwAAQBAJ&q=history+of+the+sacrament+of+penance+in+the+catholic+church&pg=PA52|title=Reconciliation and Justification: The Sacrament and Its Theology|first=Kenan|last=Osborne|date=November 28, 2001|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|via=Google Books|isbn=9781579108199}}</ref> He declared that God had forgiven the sins when it was clear that there was repentance, evidenced by the performance of some penance,<ref name=Osborne/> and the penitent was readmitted to the community.{{sfn|Martos|2014|pp=323, 325, 327}}
 
The need to confess to a priest is traced to [[Basil the Great]].{{factcitation needed|date=November 2022}} It was seen that God granted forgiveness through the priest. Before the fourth century confession and penitential discipline were a public affair "since all sin is sin not only against God but against our neighbor, against the community."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Eastern Patristic Orthodox Theology|isbn = 0814658016|last1 = Tsirpanlis|first1 = Constantine N.|year = 1991| publisher=Liturgical Press }}</ref>{{rp|140–41}} By the time of [[Cyprian]] of Carthage, confession itself was no longer public.{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=60–61}}
 
Lifelong penance was required at times, but from the early fifth century for most serious sins, public penance came to be seen as a sign of repentance. At [[Maundy Thursday]] sinners were readmitted to the community along with [[catechesis|catechumens]]. Confusion entered in from deathbed reconciliation with the church, which required no penance as a sign of repentance, and the ritual would begin to grow apart from the reality.{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=95–96, 136–45}}
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===Celtic influence===
When [[Western Christianity]] was overrun by peoples from the North and East in the [[Early Middle Ages]], a [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic version of Christian practice]] was developed in the [[history of Christianity in Ireland#Irish monastaries|monasteries of Ireland]]. From there Christian beliefs were carried back to Europe by [[History of Christianity in Ireland#missionaries abroad|missionaries]] from Ireland.
 
Because of its isolation, the [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic Church]] for centuries remained fixed with its forms of worship and penitential discipline which differed from the rest of the [[Christian Church]]. It drew from Eastern monastic traditions and had no knowledge of the institution of a public penance in the community of the church which could not be repeated, and which involved [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|canonical obligations]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ccc.usccb.org/flipbooks/catechism/index.html#363/z|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church|website=ccc.usccb.org}}</ref> Celtic penitential practices consisted of confession, acceptance of satisfaction fixed by the priest, and finally reconciliation. They date back to 6th century.
 
[[Penitential|Penitential books]] native to the islands provided precisely determined penances for all offences, small and great (an approach reminiscent of early Celtic civil and criminal law).<ref name=Davies>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0FLDeVRQCUC&q=penitentials&pg=PA39|title=Celtic Spirituality|first1=Oliver|last1=Davies|first2=Thomas|last2=O'Loughlin|date=December 17, 1999|publisher=Paulist Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780809138944}}</ref> Walter J. Woods holds that "[o]verover time the penitential books helped suppress homicide, personal violence, theft, and other offenses that damaged the community and made the offender a target for revenge."<ref name=woods>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zXlMAwAAQBAJ&q=celtic+monasticism&pg=PA206|title=Walking with Faith: New Perspectives on the Sources and Shaping of Catholic Moral Life|first=Walter J.|last=Woods|date=February 1, 2010|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|via=Google Books|isbn=9781608992850}}</ref> The practice of so-called ''tariff penance''{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=124–125}} was brought to continental Europe from [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[England]] by [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Hiberno-Scottish]] and [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] [[Monasticism in the United Kingdom|monks]].<ref>Cf. {{cite book |first = Cyrille|last = Vogel | year = 1982 |title = Le pécheur et la pénitence au moyen-age | pages = 15–24}}</ref>
 
The Celtic practice led to new theories about the nature of God's justice, about temporal punishment God imposes on sin, about a treasury of merits in heaven to pay the debt of this punishment, and finally about indulgences to offset that debt.{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=123–37}}
 
===Late Middle Ages===
The church's teaching on indulgences as reflected in Canon Law (992) reads: "An indulgence is the remission in the sight of God of the temporal punishment due for sins, the guilt of which has already been forgiven. A member of Christ's faithful who is properly disposed and who fulfills certain specific conditions, may gain an indulgence by the help of the Church which, as the minister of redemption, authoritatively dispenses and applies the treasury of the merits of Christ and the Saints."
With the spread of [[scholasticism|scholastic]] philosophy, the question arose as to what caused the remission of sins. From the early 12th century [[Peter Abelard]] and [[Peter Lombard]] reflected the practice that contrition and confession (even to laymen or, in rare cases, a nun or [[Beguines and Beghards|beguine]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swan |first=Laura |title=The Wisdom of the Beguines. The Forgotten Story of a Medieval Women's Movement |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-62919-008-2 |pages=118}}</ref>) assured of God's forgiveness, but remorse for one's sins was necessary. Absolution referred only to the punishment due to sin. But at this time Hugh of St. Victor taught on the basis of the "power of the keys" (John 20:23<ref>{{bibleverse|John|20:23}}</ref> and Matthew 18:18)<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|18:18}}</ref> that absolution applied not to the punishment but to the sins, and this hastened the end to lay confession. From "as early as the third century devout Christians were sometimes encouraged to reveal the condition of their soul to a spiritual guide." This led to a private form of confession that bishops finally put a stop to by the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) that made confession to a priest obligatory within a year of the sinning, and has enshrined the practice of private confession ever since. In the 13th century the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] philosopher Thomas Aquinas tried to reunite the personal "matter" (contrition, confession, satisfaction) and ecclesial "form" (absolution). But the [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] [[Duns Scotus]] gave support to the prevalent opinion at the time that absolution was the only essential element of the sacrament, which readmitted the penitent to the [[Eucharist]].{{sfn|Martos|2014|pp=334–343}}▼
 
In his work on the history of the Sacrament of Reconciliation, Bernhard Poschmann writes that "in its origins an indulgence is a combination of the early Medieval absolution, which had the efficacy of a prayer, and an act of jurisdiction remitting ecclesiastical penance." And so, he concludes: "{{Clarify span|An indulgence only extends to remission of satisfaction imposed by the Church.|Did he intend to describe the Celtic understanding, or his contemporary interpretation, of this doctrine?|date=September 2019}}"{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=231}}
[[File:Artgate Fondazione Cariplo - Molteni Giuseppe, La confessione.jpg|thumb|Confession]]
Celtic penitential practice had accepted the late patristic idea that it was the disciple and not God who did the forgiving, and it also employed the principle of [[Celtic law]] that a fine could be substituted for any punishment. This obscured the importance of repentance and amendment. From the 6th century Irish monks produced "[[penitentials]]" which assigned a punishment for every sin, which penitents could pay others to do for them. The practice of seeking counsel from wise persons for the reform of one's life, which developed around [[Celtic Christianity#Monasticism|monasteries]], led to the custom of reconciliation in private with a priest.{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=127–29}} While private penance was first found in the penitential books of the eighth century, the beginnings of the Sacrament of Reconciliation in the form of individual confession as we know it now, i.e. bringing together confession of sins and reconciliation with the church, can be traced back to 11th century.{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=130–31, 138, 145}} By the 9th century the practice of deathbed absolution, without performance of a penance, had led priests to pronounce absolution more widely before the performance of the penance, further separating repentance from forgiveness.{{sfn|Martos|2014|p=340}} In the early church absolution had applied to the punishment rather than to the sins themselves. This punishment was controlled by the bishops. The later understanding of absolution as applying to the sins themselves altered the notion of only God forgiving sins.{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=146–48}} By the twelfth century the formula that the priest used after hearing the confession had changed, from "May God have mercy on you and forgive you your sins" to "I absolve you from your sins."{{sfn|Martos|2014|pp=341, 347}} [[Thomas Aquinas]], with little knowledge of the early centuries of the church, mistakenly asserted that the latter was an ancient formula, and this has led to its widespread use ever since his time.{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|pp=174}}
 
▲With the spread of [[scholasticism|scholastic]] philosophy, the question arose as to what caused the remission of sins. From the early 12th century [[Peter Abelard]] and [[Peter Lombard]] reflected the practice that contrition and confession (even to laymen) assured of God's forgiveness, but remorse for one's sins was necessary. Absolution referred only to the punishment due to sin. But at this time Hugh of St. Victor taught on the basis of the "power of the keys" (John 20:23<ref>{{bibleverse|John|20:23}}</ref> and Matthew 18:18)<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|18:18}}</ref> that absolution applied not to the punishment but to the sins, and this hastened the end to lay confession. From "as early as the third century devout Christians were sometimes encouraged to reveal the condition of their soul to a spiritual guide." This led to a private form of confession that bishops finally put a stop to by the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) that made confession to a priest obligatory within a year of the sinning, and has enshrined the practice of private confession ever since. In the 13th century the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] philosopher Thomas Aquinas tried to reunite the personal "matter" (contrition, confession, satisfaction) and ecclesial "form" (absolution). But the [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] [[Duns Scotus]] gave support to the prevalent opinion at the time that absolution was the only essential element of the sacrament, which readmitted the penitent to the [[Eucharist]].{{sfn|Martos|2014|pp=334–343}}
 
In the 11th and 12th centuries a new, legalistic theory of penances had crept in, as satisfying the divine justice and paying the penalty for the "temporal punishment due to sin". This was followed by a new theory of a [[treasury of merit]]s which was first put forward around 1230.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=1054|title=Library : The Historical Origin of Indulgences|website=www.catholicculture.org}}</ref> As a means of paying this penalty, the practice grew of granting [[indulgence]]s for various good works, drawing on "the treasury of the Church's merits". These indulgences later began to be sold, leading to [[Martin Luther]]'s dramatic protest.{{sfn|Martos|2014|pp=338–339, 350}}
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=== Since the Council of Trent ===
[[File:ModConfessional.png|thumb|right|Modern confessional: three options for penitent; priest behind screen]]
In the mid-16th century the bishops at the [[Council of Trent]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/general-instruction-of-the-roman-missal/girm-introduction.cfm|title=Introduction|website=www.usccb.org|access-date=September 26, 2019}}</ref> retained the private approach to the Sacrament of Reconciliation and decreed that indulgences could not be sold. The Council Fathers, according to Joseph Martos, were also "mistaken in assuming that repeated private confession dated back to the days of the Apostles".{{sfn|Martos|2014|p=362}} Some [[Protestant Reformers]] retained the sacrament as sign but shorn of [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|Canonical]] accretions. However, for Catholics after Trent "the confession of mortal sins would be primarily regarded as a matter of divine law supported by the ecclesiastical law to confess these within a year after they had been committed".{{sfn|Martos|2014|p=357}} In the following centuries a use of the sacrament grew, from [[Counter-Reformation]] practice and, according to Martos, misunderstanding what {{lang|la|[[ex opere operato]]}} meant (independent on the worthiness of the priest) and from seeing penances as penalties (abetted by indulgences) rather than as means of reform.{{sfn|Martos|2014|pp=347, 357–58}}
 
The problem that "has dominated the entire history of the sacrament of reconciliation{{nbsp}}[...] is the determination of the roles of the subjective and personal factors and the objective and ecclesiastical factor in penance".{{sfn|Poschmann|1964|p=209}} From the mid-19th century, historical and biblical studies begancalled to restoremind anthat understandingrepentance ofis therequired necessitybefore ofGod repentancecan forforgive forgivenesssins byand Godthe beforesinner can be readmissionreadmitted to the Christian community through the sacrament.{{sfn|Martos|2014|p=360}} TheseSacramental studiestheology pavedhad thealways waytaught that contrition was necessary for thea bishopsvalid atconfession. theThe [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962-19651962–1965) to decree in theirits Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy: that the "The rite and formulas for the sacrament of penance are to be revised so that they more clearly express both the nature and effect of the sacrament."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html|title=Sacrosanctum concilium|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=September 26, 2019}}</ref> In a post-conciliar document, [[Paenitemini|The Constitution on Penance]], [[Pope Paul VI]] emphasized "the intimate relationship between external act and internal conversion, prayer, and works of charity." This sought to restore the New Testament emphasis on growth in the works of charity throughout the Christian life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://johnwijngaardsmoodle.org/pluginfile.php/2040/mod_page/content/12/Audio_Lectures/Sacraments_in_History_09.mp3|title=Joseph Martos on ''The History of Penance and Reconciliation''.}}</ref>
 
===Sacrament of reconciliation in pandemics===
On March 20, 2020, the [[Apostolic Penitentiary]] issued a note on clarifications regards the Sacrament of Reconciliation in the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. In particular it was noted that "Wherewhere theit individualis faithfulimpossible find themselves infor the painfulfaithful impossibility ofto receivingreceive sacramental absolution, itforgiveness shouldfor besins remembered(even thatgrave perfectones) contrition,may comingbe from the love of God, beloved above all things, expressedobtained by aperfect sincerecontrition request for forgiveness (that whichand the penitentbeliever's isfirm at present ableintention to express)make anda accompaniedsacramental by {{lang|la|votum confessionis}}, that is, by the firm resolution to have recourse,confession as soon as possible, to sacramental confession, obtains forgiveness of sins, even mortal ones (cf. CCC, no. 1452)."{{Sfnp|Piacenza|Nykiel|2020}}<ref>[https://www.vaticannews.va/en/church/news/2018-12/the-act-of-contrition-sacrament-reconciliation-confession.html Vatican News: Act of Contrition and Sacrament of Reconciliation] "Should we be in need of forgiveness of mortal sin, and cannot for some reason go to confession, a perfect Act of Contrition is needed along with the intention of going to confession as soon as possible." </ref>
 
==Contemporary confessional practice==
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<!--[[File:Confession2jf.JPG|thumb|Sacrament of Reconciliation, Prayers before & after [[Confession (religion)|Confession]] ([[Our Lady of Manaoag]])]]-->
 
The current ''Rite of Penance'' was produced in 1973 with two options for reconciliation services, to restore the original meaning of sacraments as community signs. This also addressed the growing sensitivity to social injustices.{{sfn|Martos|2014|p=361}} The 1983 Code of Canon Law brought some further changes. The penitent may kneel on the kneeler or sit in a chair (not shown), facing the priest. The current book on the ''Rite of Penance'' prescribes the following (42-47). The [[sign of the cross]] precedes a greeting of encouragement to trust in God. The priest may read a short passage from the Bible that proclaims God's mercy and calls to conversion. All [[mortal sins]] must be confessed, while confession of [[venial sin]]s also is recommended but not required. The priest may emphasize repentance and offer counsel, and always proposes a penance which the penitent accepts and then recites an act of contrition. The priest imparts absolution. Since the Council of Trent, the essential words of absolution have been: "I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit."{{Efn|Prior to 1973, the formula of absolution contained in the 1614 Ordo ministrandi sacramentum poenitentiae was, (in English translation): "May our Lord Jesus Christ absolve you: and I by his authority absolve you from every bond of excommunication, suspension and interdict, insofar as I am able and you need it. And finally, I absolve you from your sins, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen." Stafford pointed out that the first part "was legal and canonical in its inspiration and wording" while the 1973 formula "is more explicitly biblical, ecclesial, Christocentric, and Trinitarian."<ref name=staf/>}} In the renewal of the sacrament the more ample form is:
 
{{quoteblockquote|God, the Father of mercies, through the death and resurrection of his Son has reconciled the world to himself and sent the Holy Spirit among us for the forgiveness of sins. Through the ministry of the Church may God give you pardon and peace. And I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.<ref name="staf">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/tribunals/apost_penit/documents/rc_trib_appen_doc_20060921_stafford-reconciliation_en.html|title=Sacraments of Healing: Reconciliation and Anointing|website=www.vatican.va}}</ref>}}
 
[[File:Confessionjf.JPG|thumb|left|Simple confession box, [[OurManaoag Lady of ManaoagChurch]].]]
Finally, the priest invites the penitent to "give thanks to the Lord, for he is good", to which the penitent responds, "His mercy endures forever" (Psalms 136:1).<ref>{{bibleverse|Psalms|136:1}}</ref> The priest dismisses the penitent "in peace".
 
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The sacramental seal binds all those who hear or overhear a penitent confess a sin for the purpose of absolution, to not reveal the identity of the penitent and the sin. Those who may overhear sins confessed, such as an interpreter, are bound by the same seal as the priest.<ref name="auto1"/> A priest who violates this seal is [[latae sententiae|automatically]] excommunicated, with pardon reserved to the [[Holy See]]. Others who violate the seal may also be excommunicated. Careless speaking that might lead people to connect a specific penitent with a sin confessed is also punishable.<ref name="auto1"/>
 
While there have been martyrs who have been executed for refusing to break the seal, such as [[John of Nepomuk]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/36651/these-priests-were-martyred-for-refusing-to-violate-the-seal-of-confession-44847/|title=These priests were martyred for refusing to violate the seal of confession|website=Catholic News Agency}}</ref> in the United States the [[Confessional privilege (United States)|inviolability]] of the seal is recognized before the law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/courts/article_54c7bc3c-9d5b-11e6-bd7e-e3457316f1e4.html|title=Priests can't legally be forced to reveal what's heard in confessional, Louisiana Supreme Court rules|first=JOE GYAN JR |last=jgyan@theadvocate.com|website=The Advocate}}</ref>
 
==Manuals of confession==
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Confession and penance in the rite of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], even to our own day, preserve the character of liberation and healing rather than of judgment. Ruling and healing are seen as the same charism, as in early Christian times.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsirpanlis |first1=Constantine N. |title=Introduction to Eastern patristic thought and Orthodox theology |date=1991 |publisher=Liturgical Press |location=Collegeville, Minn. |isbn=978-0814658017 |pages=140–41}}</ref> Remission of sin is granted on the basis of sincere repentance and confession. Absolution proclaims God's forgiveness of the sin. Penance is entirely therapeutic; it reinforces the penitent's efforts at Christian growth. "Forgiveness of sin procured through sincere and heartfelt repentance is complete and perfect, needing no additional fulfillment," and so "the Orthodox Church most strenuously rejects{{nbsp}}[...] Latin teaching of penalties and punishments, eternal and temporal remission, the treasury of merits,{{nbsp}}[...] (and) purgatorial fire."<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Daniel B. |editor-last=Clendenin |title=Eastern Orthodox theology : a contemporary reader |date=1995 |publisher=Baker Books |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |isbn=978-0801025891 |page=29}}</ref>
 
A perceived ongoing need for reform and development of the sacrament in the Roman rite is argued in a book with a chapter on "From Confession to Reconciliation; Vatican II to 2015",.{{sfn|Carey|2018|pp=225–27}}. In another book on the sacraments, widely used in universities and seminaries,{{Citation needed|date=March 2023|reason=This is a mere assertion without evidence. How many seminaries and universities?}} Joseph Martos explains how he thinks much still needs to be done to bring together what he had learned through biblical and historical studies, "sacramental theory", and the way the sacrament is experienced today, "sacramental practice".{{sfn|Martos|2014|p=369}} There has been widespread demand for more general use of the Third Rite, a reconciliation service with general absolution but requiring individual confession afterwards.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023|reason=Widespread? What is the source?}} However, Canon Law as revised under [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1983 has forestalled change for the time being.{{sfn|Carey|2018|pp=266–267}}<ref name="auto"/> While arguing for much wider use of community reconciliation services with general absolution and not requiring individual confession, Catholic theologian [[Ladislas Orsy]] anticipated, in 1978, further developments in the church's legislation on the Sacrament of Reconciliation and asserted that "we cannot stop; truth and mercy must continue to unfold."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Orsy |first1=Ladislas M. |title=The evolving church and the Sacrament of Penance |date=1978 |publisher=Dimension Books |location=Denville, N.J. |isbn=978-0871930729 |pages=182, 51}}</ref>
 
== See also ==
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* {{cite book |last=Smith |first= Julie Ann |title=Ordering Women's Lives: Penitentials and Nunnery Rules in the Early Medieval West |year=2001 |place=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate}}
*{{cite web|author=International Theological Commission|date=1982|title=Penance and reconciliation|website=vatican.va|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1982_riconciliazione-penitenza_en.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731232548/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1982_riconciliazione-penitenza_en.html|archive-date=July 31, 2012|url-status=live}} Prepared for 1983 Synod of Bishops.
*
 
{{Seven Sacraments}}
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