Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Declaration adopted in 1948 by the UN General Assembly}}

{{Infobox document

{{Rights}}

{{Wikisource|Universal Declaration of Human Rights}}

The '''Universal Declaration of Human Rights''' ('''UDHR''') is an international document adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] that enshrines the [[Human rights|rights and freedoms of all human beings]]. Drafted by a UN [[Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|committee]] chaired by [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], it was accepted by the General Assembly as [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 217|Resolution 217]] during [[Third session of the United Nations General Assembly|its third session]] on 10 December 1948 at the [[Palais de Chaillot]] in Paris, France.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Human Rights Law|url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/universal-declaration/human-rights-law/index.html|access-date=20 August 2020|website=United Nations|language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200813084117/https://www.un.org/en/sections/universal-declaration/human-rights-law/index.html |archive-date= Aug 13, 2020 }}</ref> Of the 58 members of the [[United Nations]] at the time, 48 voted in favour, none against, eight [[abstentions|abstained]], and two did not vote.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unbisnet.un.org:8080/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=14O243550E15G.60956&profile=voting&uri=full=3100023~!909326~!676&ri=1&aspect=power&menu=search&source=~!horizon|title=A/RES/217(III)|publisher=UNBISNET|access-date=24 May 2015|archive-date=21 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232151/http://unbisnet.un.org:8080/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=14O243550E15G.60956&profile=voting&uri=full=3100023~!909326~!676&ri=1&aspect=power&menu=search&source=~!horizon|url-status=dead}}</ref>

 

 

|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/srhrdefenders/pages/declaration.aspx|access-date=25 June 2021|website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=70 Years of Impact: Insights on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/70-years-of-impact-insights-on-the-universal-declaration-of-human-rights/|access-date=25 June 2021|website=www.unfoundation.org|date=5 December 2018}}</ref>

 

 

== Structure and content ==

* Articles 3–5 establish other individual rights, such as the [[right to life]] and the prohibition of [[slavery]] and [[torture]].

* Articles 6–11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defence when violated.

* Articles 18–21 sanction the so-called "constitutional liberties" and spiritual, public, and political freedoms, such as [[freedom of thought]], opinion, expression, [[freedom of religion|religion]] and [[conscience]], word, [[freedom of association|peaceful association]] of the individual, and receiving and imparting information and ideas through any media.

* Articles 22–27 sanction an individual's economic, social and cultural rights, including [[Right to health#Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)|healthcare]]. It upholds an expansive [[right to an adequate standard of living]], and makes special mention of care given to those in motherhood or childhood.

=== Background ===

{{Main|History of human rights}}

}}

 

During [[World War II]], the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]—known [[Declaration by United Nations|formally as the United Nations]]—adopted as their basic war aims the [[Four Freedoms]]: [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of religion]], [[freedom from fear]], and [[freedom from want]].<ref name="speech">{{cite web|url=http://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/fdr-the-four-freedoms-speech-text/ |title=FDR, "The Four Freedoms," Speech Text &#124; |publisher=Voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu |date=6 January 1941 |access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bodnar, John 2010">Bodnar, John, The "Good War" in American Memory. (Maryland: [[Johns Hopkins University Press]], 2010) 11</ref> Towards the end of the war, the [[United Nations Charter]] was debated, drafted, and ratified to reaffirm "faith in [[Human rights|fundamental human rights]], and dignity and worth of the human person" and commit all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion".<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter9.shtml |title = United Nations Charter, preamble and article 55 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=20 April 2013}}</ref> When the atrocities committed by [[Nazi Germany]] became fully apparent after the war, the consensus within the world community was that the [[United Nations|UN]] Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred.<ref>[http://www.udhr.org/history/overview.htm#Cataclysm%20and%20World%20Response Cataclysm and World Response] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120045717/http://www.udhr.org/history/overview.htm#Cataclysm%20and%20World%20Response |date=20 January 2013 }} in [http://www.udhr.org/history/overview.htm Drafting and Adoption : The Universal Declaration of Human Rights] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120045717/http://www.udhr.org/history/overview.htm |date=20 January 2013 }}, [http://www.udhr.org udhr.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927155113/http://www.udhr.org/history/overview.htm |date=2019-09-27 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.udhr.org/Introduction/question4.htm |title=UDHR50: Didn't Nazi tyranny end all hope for protecting human rights in the modern world? |publisher=Udhr.org |date=28 August 1998 |access-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120525091118/http://www.udhr.org/history/overview.htm |archive-date=25 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was deemed necessary to create a universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals so as to give effect to the Charter's provisions on [[human rights]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.universalrights.net/main/creation.htm |title=UDHR&nbsp;– History of human rights |publisher=Universalrights.net |access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref>

=== The drafting committee ===

 

 

Canadian [[John Peters Humphrey]], the newly appointed Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the [[United Nations Secretary-General|UN Secretary-General]] to work on the project, becoming the Declaration's principal drafter.<ref>{{harvnb |Morsink |1999 |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w8OapwltI3YC&pg=PA5 5]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Morsink |1999 |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w8OapwltI3YC&pg=PA133 133]}}</ref> Other prominent members of the Drafting Committee included Vice-Chairman [[P. C. Chang|P.C. Chang]] of the [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]], [[René Cassin]] of France; and its Committee Rapporteur [[Charles Malik]] of [[Lebanon]].<ref name="RoC rep">The Declaration was drafted during the [[Chinese Civil War]]. P.C. Chang was appointed as a representative by the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]], then the recognised government of China, but which was driven from [[mainland China]] and now administers only [[Taiwan]] and nearby islands ([http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/chinese-nationalists-move-capital-to-taiwan history.com]).</ref> A month after its creation, the Drafting Committee was expanded to include representatives of Australia, Chile, France, the Soviet Union, and the [[United Kingdom]], in addition to the inaugural members from [[China]], [[France]], [[Lebanon]], and the [[United States]].<ref name=":2"/>

Humphrey is credited with devising the "blueprint" for the Declaration, while Cassin composed the first draft.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=6 October 2015|title=History of the Document|url=https://www.unsecretariat.net/en/sections/universal-declaration/history-document/index.html|access-date=5 April 2022|website=www.unsecretariat.net|language=en}}</ref> Both received considerable input from other members, each of whom reflected different professional and ideological backgrounds. The Declaration's pro-family phrases allegedly derived from Cassin and Malik, who were influenced by the [[Christian Democratic|Christian Democracy movement]];<ref>[[Allan C. Carlson|Carlson, Allan]]: [http://www.profam.org/docs/acc/thc.acc.globalizing.040112.htm Globalizing Family Values] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120525091122/http://www.profam.org/docs/acc/thc.acc.globalizing.040112.htm |date=25 May 2012 }}, 12 January 2004.</ref> Malik, a Christian theologian, was known for appealing across religious lines, and cited the [[Summa Theologica]], and studied the different Christian sects.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Voinea|first=Nicoleta|title=Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://research.un.org/en/undhr/draftingcommittee|access-date=13 September 2020|website=research.un.org}}</ref> Chang urged removing all references to religion to make the document more universal, and used aspects of Confucianism to settle stalemates in negotiations.<ref>Sumner Twiss, "[http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/ellbaozm/Papers/Rosemont.pdf#page=68 Confucian Ethics, Concept-Clusters, and Human Rights ,"] in Henry Rosemont, Marthe Chandler and Ronnie Littlejohn. ''Polishing the Chinese Mirror : Essays in Honor of Henry Rosemont, Jr.'' (New York: Global Scholarly Publications, Acpa Series of Chinese and Comparative Philosophy, 2008). {{ISBN|9781592670833}} p. 60-65.</ref> [[Hernán Santa Cruz]] of Chile, an educator and judge, strongly supported the inclusion of socioeconomic rights, which had been opposed by some Western nations.<ref name=":2" /> The members agreed that the philosophical debate centered between the opposing opinions of Chang and Malik, with Malik later singling out Chang when thanking the members, saying that there were too many to mention, but Chang's ideas impacted his own opinions in the making of the draft.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenaturalfamily.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/TNF-2018-32.3-4.pdf|title=Natural-The Natural Family}}</ref><ref>A. J. Hobbins, ed., On the Edge of Greatness: The Diaries of John Humphrey, First Director of the United Nations Division of Human Rights (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1984), 1:174</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Roth|first=Hans Ingvar|title=P. C. Chang and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NM9tDwAAQBAJ&dq=chang+vs+malik&pg=PA177|page=177|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|date=September 2018|isbn=9780812295474}}</ref>

In her memoirs, Roosevelt commented on the debates and discussions that informed the UDHR, describing one such exchange during the Drafting Committee's first session in June 1947:<blockquote>Dr. Chang was a pluralist and held forth in charming fashion on the proposition that there is more than one kind of ultimate reality. The Declaration, he said, should reflect more than simply Western ideas and Dr. Humphrey would have to be eclectic in his approach. His remark, though addressed to Dr. Humphrey, was really directed at Dr. Malik, from whom it drew a prompt retort as he expounded at some length the philosophy of [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Dr. Humphrey joined enthusiastically in the discussion, and I remember that at one point Dr. Chang suggested that the Secretariat might well spend a few months studying the fundamentals of Confucianism!<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>

 

=== The final draft ===

 

 

=== Approval ===

Eleanor Roosevelt is credited with having been instrumental in mustering support for the Declaration's adoption, both in her native U.S. and across the world, owing to her ability to appeal to different and often opposing political blocs.<ref name="unfoundation.org">{{Cite web|date=5 December 2018|title=70 Years of Impact: Insights on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/70-years-of-impact-insights-on-the-universal-declaration-of-human-rights/|access-date=13 September 2020|website=unfoundation.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

 

 

The [[British government|British]] delegation, while voting in favour of the Declaration, expressed frustration that the proposed document had moral obligations but lacked legal force;<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.bl.uk/collection-items/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=''Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Final authorized text''|date=September 1952|publisher=The British Library|access-date=16 August 2015}}</ref> it would not be until 1976 that the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] came into force, giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.

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=== International Human Rights Day ===

== Impact ==

=== Significance ===

<blockquote>In giving our approval to the declaration today, it is of primary importance that we keep clearly in mind the basic character of the document. It is not a treaty; it is not an international agreement. It is not and does not purport to be a statement of law or of legal obligation. It is a declaration of basic principles of human rights and freedoms, to be stamped with the approval of the General Assembly by formal vote of its members, and to serve as a common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations.</blockquote>

 

The UDHR is considered groundbreaking for providing a comprehensive and universal set of principles in a secular, apolitical document that explicitly transcends cultures, religions, legal systems, and political ideologies.<ref name="blogs.lse.ac.uk" /> Its claim to universality has been described as "boundlessly idealistic" and the "most ambitious feature".<ref>{{Cite news|title=Boundlessly Idealistic, Universal Declaration Of Human Rights Is Still Resisted|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/12/10/675210421/its-human-rights-day-however-its-not-universally-accepted|access-date=20 August 2020|website=NPR.org|language=en}}</ref>

 

 

In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures that secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] supported the adoption of the text as a declaration, rather than as a treaty, because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] had within the United States.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Timmons |first1=Eric J. |title=Mspy and USA declaration |url=https://www.spysoftwarecoupon.com/mspy-promo-code/ |website=4everY |date=18 February 2016 |publisher=SpySoft |access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref> Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been incorporated into or influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, subnational, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights. These kinds of measures focus on some principles that regard every culture/community especially when martial status take place or inheritance. In other words, every culture has its own norms and every individual is allowed to practice them unless he/she use them as a source of power.

 

The Declaration's all-encompassing provisions serve as a "yardstick" and point of reference by which countries' commitments to human rights are judged, such as through the treaty bodies and other mechanisms of various human rights treaties that monitor implementation.<ref name="unfoundation.org"/>

=== Legal effect ===

In international law, a declaration is distinct from a treaty in that it generally states aspirations or understandings among the parties, rather than binding obligations.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Glossary of terms relating to Treaty actions|url=https://treaties.un.org/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/Overview.aspx?path=overview/glossary/page1_en.xml#declarationsPages/Overview.aspx?path=overview/glossary/page1_en.xml#declarationshttps://treaties.un.org/Pages/Overview.aspx?path=overview/glossary/page1_en.xml#declarations|access-date=13 September 2020|website=treaties.un.org|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027161632/https://treaties.un.org/https:/treaties.un.org/Pages/Overview.aspx?path=overview%2Fglossary%2Fpage1_en.xml#declarationsPages/Overview.aspx?path=overview/glossary/page1_en.xml|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Declaration was explicitly adopted to reflect and elaborate on the customary international law reflected in the "[[fundamental freedoms]]" and "human rights" referenced in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states.<ref name=":6" /> For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations and, by extension, all 193 parties of the United Nations Charter.

 

 

Many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of [[customary international law]] and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate its articles.<ref>{{cite web|last=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights|title=Digital record of the UDHR|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NEWSEVENTS/Pages/DigitalrecordoftheUDHR.aspx|publisher=United Nations}}</ref><ref name="Ramcharan1979">{{cite book | last = John Peters | first = Humphrey | author-link = John Peters Humphrey | chapter = The universal declaration of human rights, Its history, impact andjuridical character | pages = 37 | editor-last = Bertrand G. | editor-first = Ramcharan | editor-link = Bertrand Ramcharan |title=Human Rights: Thirty Years After the Universal Declaration : Commemorative Volume on the Occasion of the Thirtieth Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=favRCKyN-_IC&pg=PA21 |date=23 May 1979 | publisher=Nijhoff |location = The Hage |isbn=9024721458}}</ref><ref name="Sohn1977">{{cite journal |title=The human rights law of the charter |journal=Texas International Law Journal |year=1977 |last=Sohn |first=Louis B. |author-link=Louis B. Sohn |volume=12 |pages=133 |issn=0163-7479 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/tilj12&div=18&id=&page= |access-date=21 March 2018 }}</ref><ref name="McDougal1969">{{cite journal |url=http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/2575 |title=Human Rights and World Public Order: A Framework for Policy-Oriented Inquiry |last1=Myres S. |first1=McDougal |author-link=Myres S. McDougal |last2=Lasswell |first2=Harold D. |author-link2=Harold Dwight Lasswell |last3=Chen |first3=Lung-chu |journal=Faculty Scholarship Series |publisher=[[Yale Law School]] |date=1969 |access-date=21 March 2018 |pages=273–274, 325–327 }}</ref><ref>Katharine G. Young, ''Freedom, Want and Economic and Social Rights: Frame and Law,'' 24 Md. J. Int'l L. 182 (2009) (Symposium on 60th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)</ref><ref name="DAmato1987">{{cite book|author=Anthony A. D'Amato|title=International law: process and prospect|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CuPAAAAMAAJ|year=1987|publisher=Transnational Publishers|isbn=978-0941320351 |pages= 123–147}}</ref> One prominent international jurist described the UDHR as being "universally regarded as expounding generally accepted norms."<ref>R. Lallah, 2 Judicial Colloquium in Bangalore, Developing Human Rights Jurisprudence, The Domestic Application of International Human Rights Norms 33 (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1998)</ref> Other legal scholars have further argued that the Declaration constitutes ''[[jus cogens]]'', fundamental principles of international law from which no state may deviate or [[Derogation|derogate]].<ref>Justice M. Haleem, "The Domestic Application of International Human Rights Norms", ''Developing Human Rights Jurisprudence'', supra note 158, at 97; Myres S. Mcdougal, Harold Lasswell & Lung-Chu Chen, "Human Rights and World Public Order" 274 (New Haven, CT: [[Yale University Press]], 1980.</ref> The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community" to all persons.<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 February 2018|title=Human rights and the international community: twenty questions|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/october-1978/human-rights-and-international-community-twenty-questions|access-date=14 September 2020|website=UNESCO|language=en}}</ref>

In 2004, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in ''[[Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain]]'' that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law", and that the political branches of the U.S. federal government can "scrutinize" the nation's obligations to international instruments and their enforceability.<ref name=":1" /> However, U.S. courts and legislatures may still use the Declaration to inform or interpret laws concerned with human rights,<ref name=":11">G. Christenson, "Using Human Rights Law to Inform Due Process and Equal Protection Analyses," University of Cincinnati Law Review 52 (1983), '''p. 3'''.</ref> a position shared by the courts of Belgium, the Netherlands, India, and Sri Lanka.<ref name=":11" />

 

The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable activists, jurists, and political leaders. [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] philosopher and diplomat [[Charles Malik]] called it "an international document of the first order of importance",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/law/AVLpilotproject/udhr_audio.html|title=Statement by Charles Malik as Representative of Lebanon to the Third Committee of the United Nations General Assembly on the Universal Declaration|date=6 November 1948 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080928133214/http://www.un.org/law/AVLpilotproject/udhr_audio.html |archive-date=28 September 2008}}</ref> while [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]—first chairperson of the [[Commission on Human Rights]] (CHR) that helped draft the Declaration—stated that it "may well become the international [[Magna Carta]] of all men everywhere."<ref>{{cite web |author=Michael E. Eidenmuller |url = https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/eleanorrooseveltdeclarationhumanrights.htm |title=Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly |publisher=Americanrhetoric.com |date=9 December 1948 |access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref> At the 1993 United Nations [[World Conference on Human Rights]], one of the largest international gatherings on human rights,<ref>[[Kevin Boyle (lawyer)|Boyle, Kevin]] (1995). "Stock-Taking on Human Rights: The World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna 1993". In Beetham, David (ed.). ''Politics and Human Rights''. [[Wiley-Blackwell]]. p. 79. {{ISBN|0631196668}}.</ref> diplomats and officials representing 100 nations reaffirmed their governments' "commitment to the purposes and principles contained in the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights" and emphasized that the Declaration as "the source of inspiration and has been the basis for the United Nations in making advances in standard setting as contained in the existing international human rights instruments."<ref name=":7" /> In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope [[John Paul II]] called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time", despite the Vatican never adopting it.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/2003/documents/rc_seg-st_20031210_human-rights_en.html |title=John Paul II, Address to the U.N., October 2, 1979 and October 5, 1995 |publisher=Vatican.va |access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref> In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the [[European Union]], [[Marcello Spatafora]] said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community".<ref>{{Citation | url = https://www.un.org/press/en/2003/ga10220.doc.htm | title = International human rights defenders honoured as general assembly marks fifty-fifth anniversary of universal declaration | date = 10 December 2003 | website = United Nations: meetings coverage and press releases}}</ref>

 

Specific provisions of the UDHR are cited or elaborated by [[Lobbying|interest groups]] in relation to their specific area of focus. In 1997, the council of the [[American Library Association]] (ALA) endorsed Articles 18 through 20 concerning freedoms of thought, opinion, and expression,<ref>{{cite web|title=Resolution on IFLA, Human Rights and Freedom of Expression|url=http://www.ala.org/offices/iro/awardsactivities/resolutionifla|website=ala.org|date=8 November 2006}}</ref> which were codified in the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the [[Library Bill of Rights]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Universal Right to Free Expression|url=http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill/interpretations/universalright|work=ala.org|date=26 July 2006}}</ref> The Declaration formed the basis of the ALA's claim that [[censorship]], [[invasion of privacy]], and interference of opinions are human rights violations.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Universal Right to Free Expression|url=http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill/interpretations/universalright|access-date=1 April 2018|website=American Library Association|date=26 July 2006}}</ref>

 

{{Further|Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam}}

[[File:Map of Islam.svg|thumb|right|Distribution map of [[Islam by country]]]]

[[Faisal Kutty]], a Muslim Canadian human rights activist, opines that a "strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home [...]. It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/6294545?versionId=7270568 |title=Non-Western Societies Have Influenced Human Rights |publisher=in Jacqueline Langwith (ed.), Opposing Viewpoints: Human Rights, Gale/Greenhaven Press: Chicago, 2007}}</ref> Irene Oh, director of the peace studies programme at [[Georgetown University]], has argued that Muslim reservations towards some provisions of the UDHR, and the broader debate about the document's secular and Western bias, could be resolved through mutual dialogue grounded in [[Descriptive ethics|comparative descriptive ethics]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Rights of God|url=http://press.georgetown.edu/book/georgetown/rights-god|publisher=[[Georgetown University Press]], 2007}}</ref>

 

Groups such as [[Amnesty International]]<ref name="autogenerated1997">[https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/EUR01/004/1997/en Out of the margins: the right to conscientious objection to military service in Europe: An announcement of Amnesty International's forthcoming campaign and briefing for the United Nations Commission on Human Rights], 31 March 1997. Amnesty International.</ref> and [[War Resisters International]]<ref name="War Resisters International">[http://www.wri-irg.org/books/co-guide-un.htm A Conscientious Objector's Guide to the UN Human Rights System], Parts 1, 2 & 3, Background Information on International Law for COs, Standards which recognise the right to conscientious objection, War Resisters' International.</ref> have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill" to be added to the Universal Declaration, as has [[Seán MacBride]], a former Assistant [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate.<ref>[[Seán MacBride]], [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1974/macbride-lecture.html The Imperatives of Survival], Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1974, [https://www.nobelprize.org/index.html The Nobel Foundation]&nbsp;– Official website of the [[Nobel Foundation]]. (English index page; hyperlink to Swedish site.) From [https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_organizations/nobelfoundation/publications/lectures/peace.html Nobel Lectures in Peace] 1971–1980.</ref> War Resisters International has stated that the right to [[Conscientious objector|conscientious objection]] to military service is primarily derived from Article 18 of the UDHR, which preserves the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.<ref name="War Resisters International" /> Some [[Conscientious objector#Universal Declaration of Human Rights|steps have been taken within the UN]] to make the right more explicit, with the Human Rights Council repeatedly affirming that Article 18 enshrines "the right of everyone to have conscientious objection to military service as a legitimate exercise of the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion".<ref>{{Cite web|title=OHCHR {{!}} Conscientious objection to military service|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/RuleOfLaw/Pages/ConscientiousObjection.aspx|access-date=20 August 2020|website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Human Rights Documents|url=https://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/HRC/RES/24/17|access-date=20 August 2020|website=ap.ohchr.org}}</ref>

 

The [[American Anthropological Association]] criticized the UDHR during its drafting process, warning that its definition of universal rights reflected a [[Western Culture|Western]] paradigm that was unfair to non-Western nations. They further argued that the West's history of [[colonialism]] and [[evangelism]] made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of [[cultural relativism]]:

 

# Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://franke.uchicago.edu/aaa1947.pdf |title=Statement on Human Rights |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=22 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322142127/http://franke.uchicago.edu/aaa1947.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

 

During the lead-up to the [[World Conference on Human Rights]] that was held in 1993, ministers from several Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, which reaffirms their governments' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their belief that human rights are interdependent and indivisible, and stressed the need for universality, [[objectivity (philosophy)|objectivity]], and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of [[sovereignty]] and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis upon economic, social, and cultural rights, and in particular, the right to economic development by establishing international collaboration directives between the signatories. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of [[Asian values]] with respect to human rights, which offers an extended critique of human rights [[moral universalism|universalism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://law.hku.hk/lawgovtsociety/Bangkok%20Declaration.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041124184022/http://law.hku.hk/lawgovtsociety/Bangkok%20Declaration.htm|archive-date=24 November 2004 |title=Final Declaration Of The Regional Meeting For Asia Of The World Conference On Human Rights |publisher=Law.hku.hk |access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref>

 

[[Category:1948 documents]]

[[Category:December 1948 events]]

[[Category:Human rights instruments]]

[[Category:United Nations General Assembly resolutions]]