Non-renewable resource: Difference between revisions

{{Use dmy dates|date=JuneFebruary 20132023}}

[[File:Coal mine Wyoming.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A [[coal mining|coal mine]] in [[Wyoming]], [[United States]]. [[Coal]], produced over millions of years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a human time scale.]]

Conversely, resources such as [[timber]] (when [[Sustainable forest management|harvested sustainably]]) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered [[renewable resource]]s, largely because their localized replenishment can also occur within time frames meaningful to humans ashuman welllifespans.

[[File:GoldOreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Raw gold ore that is eventually smelted down into gold metal.]]

Natural resources such as [[coal]], [[petroleum]] (crude oil) and [[natural gas]] take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually itIt is consideredprojected that fossil-based resources will eventually become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of[[renewable energy]] such as solar or wind power, see [[renewable energy]].

An alternative hypothesis is that carbon -based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastlymuch greater than all other carbon -based fossil fuel resources combined.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/energy/methane-hydrates/ |title=Methane hydrates |website=Worldoceanreview.com |access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref> These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However, their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.

At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable [[fossil fuels]]. Since the dawn of [[internal combustion engine]] technologies in the 19th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional [[infrastructure]] and [[transport]] systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominentpredominant throughoutaround the globe.

[[File:Arandis Mine quer.jpg|thumb|[[Rössing uranium mine]] is the longest-running and one of the largest [[open pit]] uranium mines in the world,; in 2005 it produced eight percent of global uranium oxide needs (3,711 tons).<ref name="infomine">[http://www.infomine.com/minesite/minesite.asp?site=rossing Rössing] (from infomine.com, status Friday 30 September 2005)</ref> The most productive mines however are the underground [[McArthur River uranium mine]] in Canada, which produces 13% of the world's uranium, and the similarly underground poly-metallic [[Olympic Dam mine]] in Australia, which despiteis being largelymainly a copper mine, but contains the largest known reserve of uranium ore.]]

[[File:Uranium and thorium release from coal combustion.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|Annual release of "technologically enhanced"/concentrated [[Naturallynaturally occurring radioactive material]], [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] [[radioisotopes]] naturally found in coal and concentrated in heavy/bottom [[coal ash]] and airborne [[fly ash]].<ref name="USGS" >{{cite web

The use of [[nuclear technology]] relying on [[Nuclear fission|fission]] requires [[Naturallynaturally occurring radioactive material]] as fuel. [[Uranium]], the most common fission fuel, is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and [[uranium mining|mined]] in 19 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html|title=World Uranium Mining|publisher=World Nuclear Association|access-date=2011-02-28}}</ref> This mined uranium is used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with [[Fissile|fissionable]] [[uranium-235]] which generates heat that is ultimately used to power [[turbine]]s to generate electricity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/uran.html|title=What is uranium? How does it work?|publisher=World Nuclear Association|access-date=2011-02-28}}</ref>

As of 2013 only a few kilograms (picture available) of uranium have been extracted from the ocean in [[pilot program]]s and it is also believed that the uranium extracted on an industrial scale from the seawater would constantly be replenished from uranium [[leaching (metallurgy)|leached]] from the ocean floor, maintaining the seawater concentration at a stable level.<ref name="gepr.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gepr.org/en/contents/20130729-01/|title=The current state of promising research into extraction of uranium from seawater – Utilization of Japan's plentiful seas : Global Energy Policy Research|website=www.gepr.org}}</ref> In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, a paper in the journal of ''Marine Science & Engineering'' suggests that with, light water reactors as its target, the process would be [[economy of scale|economically competitive if implemented on a large scale]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Development of a Kelp-Type Structure Module in a Coastal Ocean Model to Assess the Hydrodynamic Impact of Seawater Uranium Extraction Technology|first1=Gary|last1=Gill|first2=Wen|last2=Long|first3=Tarang|last3=Khangaonkar|first4=Taiping|last4=Wang|date=22 March 2014|journal=Journal of Marine Science and Engineering|volume=2|issue=1|pages=81–92|doi=10.3390/jmse2010081|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity.<ref>[[World Nuclear Association]]. [http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/newsarticle.aspx?id=27665 Another drop in nuclear generation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107221735/http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/newsarticle.aspx?id=27665 |date=7 January 2014 }} ''World Nuclear News'', 5 May 2010.</ref> Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous [[radioactive contamination]] as it relies upon unstable elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of [[low and intermediate level waste]] (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of [[high level waste]] (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html |title=Factsheets & FAQs |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) |access-date=2012-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125062648/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html |archive-date=25 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Issues entirely separateSeparate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use ofare nuclearconcerns fuel andabout the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates, thatwhich if not properly contained, is [[Acute radiation syndrome|highly hazardous]] to people and wildlife. The United Nations ([[United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation|UNSCEAR]]) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 [[millisievert]] (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the [[Chernobyl disaster]] and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 &nbsp;mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 &nbsp;mSv from [[cosmic ray]]s; all exposures [[Background radiation|vary by location]].<ref name = UNSCEAR>United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. [http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008]</ref> [[naturalNatural uranium]] in some inefficient reactor [[nuclear fuel cycle]]s, becomes part of the [[Radioactive waste|nuclear waste]] "[[nuclear fuel cycle|once through]]" stream, and in a similar manner to the scenario were this uranium remained naturally in the ground, this uranium emits various forms of radiation in a [[decay chain]] that has a [[half-life]] of about 4.5 billion years,.<ref name="natortg">{{cite web |last=Mcclain |first=D.E. |author2=A.C. Miller |author3=J.F. Kalinich |title=Status of Health Concerns about Military Use of Depleted Uranium and Surrogate Metals in Armor-Penetrating Munitions |publisher=[[NATO]] |date=20 December 2007 |url=http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/mcclain_NATO_2005.pdf |access-date=2012-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207021921/http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/mcclain_NATO_2005.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> theThe storage of this unused uranium and the accompanying fission reaction products havehas raised public concerns about [[Nuclear and radiation accidents|risks of leaks and containment]], however thestudies knowledgeconducted gained from studyingon the [[Naturalnatural nuclear fission reactor]] in Oklo [[Gabon]], hashave informed geologists on the proven processes that kept the waste from this 2 billion year old natural nuclear reactor that operated for hundreds of thousands of years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull42-3/42302680518.pdf|title=The Safety of Radioactive Waste Management| author=AJ González|date= 2000|publisher=IAEA}}</ref>

Land surface can be considered both a renewable and non-renewable resource depending on the scope of comparison. [[land economics|Land]] can be reused, but new land cannot be created on demand, so from economic perspectivemaking it's a fixed resource with perfectly [[inelastic supply]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=J.Singh|date=2014-04-17|title=Land: Meaning, Significance, Land as Renewable and Non-Renewal Resource|url=https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/factors-of-production/land-meaning-significance-land-as-renewable-and-non-renewal-resource/785|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Economics Discussion|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lambin|first=Eric F.|date=2012-12-01|title=Global land availability: Malthus versus Ricardo|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912412000235|journal=Global Food Security|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=83–87|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2012.11.002|issn=2211-9124}}</ref> from an economic perspective.

[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-Landsat7.jpg|thumb|Satellite map showing areas flooded by the Three Gorges reservoir. Compare 7 November 2006 (above) with 17 April 1987 (below). The energy station required the flooding of [[archaeological]] and cultural sites and displaced some 1.3&nbsp;million people, and is causing significant [[ecological]] changes, including an increased risk of [[landslide]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://unn.people.com.cn/GB/9105724.html |title=重庆云阳长江右岸现360万方滑坡险情-地方-人民网 |work=People's Daily |access-date=2009-08-01}} See also: {{cite web |url= http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2009-04/09/content_11157017.htm |title=探访三峡库区云阳故陵滑坡险情 |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |access-date=2009-08-01}}</ref> The dam has been a controversial topic both domestically and abroad.<ref name="controversy">{{cite magazine |author=Lin Yang |title=China's Three Gorges Dam Under Fire |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1671000,00.html |magazine=Time |date=2007-10-12 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=The giant Three Gorges Dam across China's Yangtze River has been mired in controversy ever since it was first proposed }} See also: {{cite news |last=Laris |first=Michael |title=Untamed Waterways Kill Thousands Yearly |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/china/stories/death081798.htm |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=1998-08-17 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=Officials now use the deadly history of the Yangtze, China's longest river, to justify the country's riskiest and most controversial infrastructure project&nbsp;– the enormous Three Gorges Dam. }} and {{cite news |last=Grant |first=Stan |title=Global Challenges: Ecological and Technological Advances Around the World |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0506/18/gc.01.html |publisher=CNN |date=2005-06-18 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=China's engineering marvel is unleashing a torrent of criticism. [...] When it comes to global challenges, few are greater or more controversial than the construction of the massive Three Gorges Dam in Central China. }} and {{cite news |last=Gerin |first=Roseanne |title=Rolling on a River |url=http://www.bjreview.com.cn/eye/txt/2008-12/06/content_168792.htm |work=Beijing Review |date=2008-12-11 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=..the 180-billion yuan ($26.3&nbsp;billion) Three Gorges Dam project has been highly contentious. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922231347/http://www.bjreview.com.cn/eye/txt/2008-12/06/content_168792.htm |archive-date=22 September 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

In the natural environment [[water]], [[forest]]s, [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s are all renewable resources, as long as they are adequately [[Conservation biology|monitored, protected and conserved]]. [[Sustainable agriculture]] is the cultivation of plant and animal materials in a manner that preserves plant and animal [[ecosystem]]s and that can improve [[soil health]] and [[soil fertility]] over the long term. The [[overfishing]] of the oceans is one example of where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem, endanger [[endangered species|species]] and possibly even determine whether or not a [[fishery]] is sustainable for use by humans. An unregulated industry practice or method can lead to a complete [[resource depletion]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing Inin Small-Scale Marine and Inland Capture Fisharies|url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y3274E/y3274e09.htm|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|access-date=2012-02-04}}</ref>

The potential wave [[energy]] on coastlines can provide 1/5 of world demand. Hydroelectric power can supply 1/3 of our total energy global needs. Geothermal energy can provide 1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough wind to power the planet 30 times over, wind power could power all of humanity's needs alone30 times over. Solar currently supplies only 0.1% of our world energy needs, but there is enough out there tocould power humanity's needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy demand by 2050.<ref>R. Eisenberg and D. Nocera, "Preface: Overview of the Forum on Solar and Renewable Energy," Inorg. Chem. 44, 6799 (2007).</ref><ref>P. V. Kamat, "Meeting the Clean Energy Demand: Nanostructure Architectures for Solar Energy Conversion," J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 2834 (2007).</ref>

Renewable energy and [[Energy conservation|energy efficiency]] are no longer niche [[Economic sector|sector]]s that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that [[sustainable energy]] has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by [[climate change]] concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, [[2000s energy crisis|high oil prices]], [[peak oil]] and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are [[renewable energy commercialization|commercializing renewable energy]], enlarging the market and growing demand,increasing the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://energy-base.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/SEFI-Global-Trends-in-Sustainable-Energy-Investment-2007.pdf |title=Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries (PDF), p. 3. |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |access-date=2014-03-04}}</ref>

In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as [[Good (economics)|goods]], wherewhose greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow.<ref>Cremer and Salehi-IsfahalIsfahani 1991:18</ref> [[David Ricardo]] in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, and argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by [[Hotelling's rule]], which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable [[resource management]] by [[Harold Hotelling]]. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a [[resource depletion|depletion]] of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "[[Hotelling rent]]" for it that rises annually at a rate equal to the [[rate of interest]], reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources.<ref>{{cite journal |first=H. |last=Hotelling |year=1931 |title=The Economics of Exhaustible Resources |journal=[[Journal of Political Economy|J. Political Econ.]] |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=137–175 |doi=10.1086/254195 |jstor=1822328 |s2cid=44026808 }}</ref> The [[Hartwick's rule]] provides an important result about the [[sustainability]] of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable sourceresources.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartwick |first1=John M. |title=Intergenerational Equity and the Investing of Rents from Exhaustible Resources |journal=The American Economic Review |date=December 1977 |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=972-974972–974 |jstor=1828079 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1828079}}</ref>