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'''Moral universalism''' (also called '''moral objectivism''') is the [[meta-ethics|meta-ethical]] position that some system of ethics, or a universal ethic, applies [[universality (philosophy)|universally]], that is, for "all similarly situated individuals",<ref name=PhilPages/> regardless of [[culture]], [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[sex]], [[religion]], [[nationality]], [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]], or any other distinguishing feature.<ref name=Gowans/> Moral universalism is opposed to [[moral nihilism]] and [[moral relativism]]. However, not all forms of moral universalism are [[moral absolutism|absolutist]], nor are they necessarily [[value monism|value monist]]; many forms of universalism, such as [[utilitarianism]], are non-absolutist, and some forms, such as that of [[Isaiah Berlin]], may be [[value pluralism|value pluralist]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}}▼
▲'''Moral universalism''' (also called '''moral objectivism''') is the [[
In addition to the theories of [[moral realism]], moral universalism includes other cognitivist moral theories, such as the subjectivist [[ideal observer theory]] and [[divine command theory]], and also the non-cognitivist moral theory of [[universal prescriptivism]].<ref name=noncognitivism/><ref name=prescriptivism/>▼
▲In addition to the theories of [[moral realism]], moral universalism includes other [[Cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivist]] moral theories, such as the subjectivist [[ideal observer theory]] and [[divine command theory]], and also the [[Non-cognitivism|non-cognitivist]] moral theory of [[universal prescriptivism]].<ref name=noncognitivism/><ref name=prescriptivism/>
==Overview==
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An early example of moral universalism can be found in [[Judaism]]: the [[Seven Laws of Noah]] ({{lang-he|שבע מצוות בני נח}}, ''Sheva Mitzvot B'nei Noach''),<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia
The [[United Nations]]' [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] can be read as assuming
Global environmental treaties may also assume and present a moral universalism. The [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] is founded upon the "common heritage of mankind". Protecting this heritage is presented in the treaty as a shared moral duty requiring protective actions based on "common but differentiated responsibilities". This has been
=== Attempts to define a universal morality ===
In his ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1785), [[Immanuel Kant]] attempts to derive a supreme principle of morality that binds all [[rational agents]].
Similarly, [[divine command theory]] presents a form of universalism, by way of the unconditional morality of God's commandments. It revolves around the idea that morality is synonymous with following God's commands. While various religions may have Gods that endorse different beliefs and behaviors, divine command theory encompasses all instances of a deity dictating a society's morals. Plato's "[[Euthyphro dilemma]]" is a dialogue written to point out the inconsistencies of this philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Euthyphro|date=1924-01-01|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00254375|title=Plato: Euthyphro; Apology of Socrates; and Crito|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oseo/instance.00254375|isbn=978-0-19-814015-3|access-date=2021-08-21}}</ref>
== Modern studies and measurement ==
There is a body of work studying moral universalism using experimental and survey data in Economics, recently reinvigorated by Harvard Economist [https://benjamin-enke.com Ben Enke]. The body broadly attempts to describe correlates with universalist preferences and to study the moral origins of political preferences or polarization. These efforts can be attributed as loosely inspired by the work of social psychologist, [[Jonathan Haidt]], and his [[Moral foundations theory|Moral Foundations Theory]].
The [[Moral foundations theory|Moral Foundations theory]], developed by [[Jonathan Haidt]] and colleagues, proposes that there are “intuitive ethics,” or morals that individuals subscribe to within cultures. There are five foundations that a person's behaviors tend to adhere to: care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, and sanctity/degradation. Haidt argues that these morals are cross-cultural, and alignment with them is present at birth.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Jonathan |last=Haidt |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1031966889 |title=Righteous Mind : Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion. |date=2012 |publisher=Random House US |isbn=978-0-307-37790-6 |oclc=1031966889}}</ref> Of note, the Moral Foundations Theory does not assert that every culture has the same morals, but rather each has developed their own set of acceptable behaviors, and there tends to be overlaps in the aforementioned areas listed earlier.
=== Universalism and politics ===
Measurement regarding universalism and politics typically seeks to explain political divides from the moral ''origins'' of their supporters. Enke et al. have published a number of studies, including their canonical study, where they find that heterogeneity in universalism descriptively explains why the left and right both simultaneously support and oppose different types of government spending.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Enke |first1=Benjamin |last2=Rodríguez-Padilla |first2=Ricardo |last3=Zimmermann |first3=Florian |date=July 2020 |title=Moral Universalism and the Structure of Ideology |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w27511.pdf |language=en |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=w27511 |doi=10.3386/w27511|s2cid=214116079 }}</ref> They find that you can explain the left-right divide on topics such as redistribution through the level and quality of universalism in their respective politics (e.g., redistribution to US veterans, which is more morally loyalist, compared to redistribution via foreign aid). They find the political left to be broadly more universalistic. Haidt too has written about how his (broader) Moral Foundations theory can be applied to modern US politics.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schuman |first=Joseph |date=July 15, 2018 |title=The Righteous Mind: Moral Foundations Theory |url=https://dividedwefall.org/the-righteous-mind-moral-foundations-theory/ |work=Divided We Fall |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The idea of a [[universal basic income]] has also been put forward within politics.
=== Determinants of universalism ===
Enke and his coauthors also find that universalism is significantly related to observables: older people, men, the rich, the rural, and the religious exhibit less moral universalism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Enke |first1=Benjamin |last2=Rodríguez-Padilla |first2=Ricardo |last3=Zimmermann |first3=Florian |date=2022-05-01 |title=Moral Universalism: Measurement and Economic Relevance |url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mnsc.2021.4086 |journal=Management Science |volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=3590–3603 |doi=10.1287/mnsc.2021.4086 |s2cid=221701522 |issn=0025-1909}}</ref> Moreover, universalists donate less money but to more global recipients. Behaviorally, universalists have fewer friends, spend less time with them, and feel more lonely.
These studies also allow us to compare the prevalence of universalism across countries and cultures. A large, cross-country survey study finds that socioeconomic experiences determine levels of universalism, with experience of democracy greatly helping.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cappelen |first1=Alexander W. |last2=Enke |first2=Benjamin |last3=Tungodden |first3=Bertil |date=2022 |title=Moral Universalism: Global Evidence |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4291744 |language=en |location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=4291744 }}</ref> Anthropologists at the [[University of Oxford]] published a study in 2019 examining 60 different cultures and their principles. This study was conducted by reviewing [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] content from each culture. Seven fundamentals were identified beforehand, and historic writings were analyzed to search for either positive or negative moral valence of each one. It was found that 99.9% of the time, these seven behaviors were considered “moral”: helping kin, helping group, reciprocating, being brave, respecting superiors, dividing resources, and respecting property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Curry |first1=Oliver Scott |last2=Mullins |first2=Daniel Austin |last3=Whitehouse |first3=Harvey |date=2019-02-02 |title=Is It Good to Cooperate? Testing the Theory of Morality-as-Cooperation in 60 Societies |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/701478 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=47–69 |doi=10.1086/701478 |issn=0011-3204 |s2cid=150324056}}</ref> These principles appeared across all cultures studied, and only one counterexample was found: an instance of the “respecting property” value clashing with “being brave.”
==See also==
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
* [[Christian universalism]]
* [[Cultural universal]]
* [[Natural law]]
* [[Universal basic income]]
* [[Universal basic services]]
* [[Universal value]]
* [[Universalism]]
==References==
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<ref name=Chomsky>
{{cite web |first= Noam|last= Chomsky |url=http://www.chomsky.info/articles/20020702.htm |title=Terror and Just Response |
</ref>
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<ref name=Hepburn>
{{cite book |title=[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]] |chapter=Ethical objectivism and subjectivism |first=RW|last=Hepburn |edition =2nd |isbn= 9780199264797 |pages=667 ''ff'' |date=January 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press }}
</ref> [https://www.amazon.com/reader/0199264791?_encoding=UTF8&query=ethical%20objectivism#reader_0199264791 Accessible on-line] through Amazon's 'Look inside' feature.
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<ref name=prescriptivism>
[[Universal prescriptivism|''Prescriptivism'']]: [[R. M. Hare]]'s contention that the use of moral language conveys an implicit commitment to act accordingly. Thus, for example, saying that "Murder is wrong" not only entails acceptance of a universalizable obligation not to kill, but also leads to avoidance of the act of killing.[http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/p7.htm#presc Philosophy Pages]
<ref name=UN>
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